were largely successful, the hostage-takers were also able to target, label, and marginalize political opponents as pro-American. Indeed, the hostage-takers hailed their capture of the US embassy as the Second Islamic Revo- lution.35
Khomeini’s harsh anti-Western rhetoric and the take- over of the US embassy marked a turning post in post- revolutionary Iran’s relationship with the international community. The extreme tension with the United States and the increasing need for international support and allies meant that external issues directly impacted Kho- meini’s hold on power. Khomeini’s potent language and support of those in control of the embassy allowed him to assume the leadership of the revolutionary movement while working within the powerful current of national- ism and anti-imperialism.36
Few states other than Saudi Arabia were as fearful of the Iranian Revolution as Iraq. However, Saddam Hus- sein was also confident of Iran’s temporary weakness, and thus invaded Iran in September 1980. In doing so, he expected to regain territory signed away in 1975 and hoped to put an end to the appeal of Khomeini. In this sense, the Iran-Iraq War was, in part, an attempt at counter-revolution.
Instead, the Iran-Iraq war unified and mobilized the Ira- nian masses under Khomeini’s leadership. Islam became a central factor in the war effort, especially Shi’a Islam and the tradition of martyrdom. Both the Iranian nation and religion were perceived to be under attack, creating a powerful common purpose for the Iranian people. Af- ter anti-Americanism, war became Khomeini’s rationale for eliminating the remaining political opposition. The Iran-Iraq War afforded Khomeini the necessary latitude to implement his vision for Iran.37 Khomeini used it to clamp down on opposition and to consolidate power for Islamists by showing that his version of Islam was asso- ciated with the defense of the true Islam. By 1988, the regime had consolidated its position. The military had held up and there was less need to export the revolution. Moreover, as a result of Saddam’s clear aggression, Iran was more accepted within the international community and Khomeini was no longer under direct threat; the Islamic Revolution had been firmly established.