152 Democracy and Dictatorship
particular associations as guilty of dividing what should
remain united, modern democracy is pluralistic and lives
on the existence, the multiplicity and the vigour of
intermediate associations. De Tocqueville was struck both
by the equality of conditions and by the tendency of
members of American society to join associations in order
to promote the public good, so that 'independently of the
permanent associations created by law in the name of the
community, the city and the country, there also existed a
host of others which owed their existence and development
to the will of individuals' (1835-40). And associationism
became a new criterion (new compared to the traditional
criteria which focused exclusively on the number of rulers)
for distinguishing between democratic and non-democratic
societies as is shown by this surprisingly incisive passage:
In aristocratic society men have no need to unite in order to act
because they are already firmly held together. Every rich and
powerful citizen is like the head of a permanent and strong
association which includes everybody dependent on him and
whom he bids carry out his plans. In democracies where all
citizens are independent and inefficient, they can do hardly
anything alone and no one is able to oblige his peers to cooperate.
If they do not learn to help each other freely, they all fall into
helplessness, (de Tocqueville 1835-40)
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY AND DIRECT DEMOCRACY
In the century before the First World War, the history
of democracy coincides with the consolidation of the
representative state in the main European countries and
with their internal development: so much so that the
complex typology of traditional forms of government is
reduced to the opposition of the types, democracy and
autocracy. Bearing in mind the two fundamental character-
istics of American democracy highlighted by de Tocqueville
(the principle of popular sovereignty and the phenomenon
of associations), the representative state which was gradually
152 Democracy and Dictatorshipparticular associations as guilty of dividing what shouldremain united, modern democracy is pluralistic and liveson the existence, the multiplicity and the vigour ofintermediate associations. De Tocqueville was struck bothby the equality of conditions and by the tendency ofmembers of American society to join associations in orderto promote the public good, so that 'independently of thepermanent associations created by law in the name of thecommunity, the city and the country, there also existed ahost of others which owed their existence and developmentto the will of individuals' (1835-40). And associationismbecame a new criterion (new compared to the traditionalcriteria which focused exclusively on the number of rulers)for distinguishing between democratic and non-democraticsocieties as is shown by this surprisingly incisive passage:In aristocratic society men have no need to unite in order to actbecause they are already firmly held together. Every rich andpowerful citizen is like the head of a permanent and strongassociation which includes everybody dependent on him andwhom he bids carry out his plans. In democracies where allcitizens are independent and inefficient, they can do hardlyanything alone and no one is able to oblige his peers to cooperate.If they do not learn to help each other freely, they all fall intohelplessness, (de Tocqueville 1835-40)ตัวแทนของประชาธิปไตยและประชาธิปไตยทางตรงในศตวรรษก่อนก่อนสงครามโลกครั้ง ประวัติประชาธิปไตยกรุณารวมของการตัวแทนรัฐในประเทศยุโรปหลัก และมีการพัฒนาภายใน: ดังมากดังนั้นการจำแนกความซับซ้อนของรูปแบบดั้งเดิมของรัฐบาลคือลดการต่อต้านประชาธิปไตย ชนิด และautocracy กรุณาระบุวันสองพื้นฐานอักขระ-istics de Tocqueville ที่เน้นประชาธิปไตยอเมริกัน(หลักการของอำนาจอธิปไตยที่นิยมและปรากฏการณ์ของสมาคม), ตัวแทนรัฐที่ถูกค่อย ๆ
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