where Xt is the level of variable X in year t divided by the level of total assets in year t; dXt is the change in the level of X from year t − 2 to year t, Xt − Xt−2; dXt+2 is the change in the level of X from year t to year t + 2, Xt+2− Xt; V is the market value of the firm calculated at fiscal year-end as the sum of the market value of equity, the book value of short-term debt, and the book value of long-term debt; E is earnings before extraordinary items plus interest, deferred tax credits, and investment tax credits; A is total assets; RD is the research and development (R&D) expense; I is the interest expense; and D is dividends defined as common dividend paid. When R&D is missing, we set it equal to zero. A straightforward way to estimate the relation between market value and cash holdings in the model is to split the change in assets into its cash and noncash components and estimate the following specification: