Training for workers was primarily in the form of an apprenticeship after employment and it was compulsory. Training for cadres was only offered to those who had potential for promotion and it was run by schools of the Communist Party at different levels, such as the central, provincial and county's levels. Although training for cadres was not compulsory, nobody could afford to miss it, as it was critical for promotion. According to [22] Dowling and Welch (2004), training programs in China for cadres focused on political studies.