Central nervous system (CNS) toxicity usually results from
short exposure to high concentrations of oxygen at greater than
atmospheric pressure. Exposure to partial pressure of 160 kPa,
about eight times the atmospheric concentration, for minutes to
hours is usually associated with CNS toxicity [22,23]. These
conditions are only met in certain situations such as diving or
during hyperbaric oxygen treatment. CNS toxicity does not occur
during normobaric exposures.
Clinical signs of CNS toxicity start with visual changes such as
tunnel vision, tinnitus, nausea, facial twitching, dizziness and
confusion. The time for the appearance of symptoms is inversely
related to the oxygen pressure and may be as short as 10 minutes
at pressures of 4-5 atmospheres absolute [3]. This may be followed
by tonic clonic seizures and subsequent unconsciousness. However,
there appears to be no consistent pattern in the appearance of
minor signs before the development of seizures.
Seizures are the most dramatic and dangerous sign of oxygen
toxicity but are reversible without residual neurological damage if
the inspired oxygen partial pressure is reduced. The onset of
seizures is dependent on the partial pressure of oxygen and the
exposure duration. However, exposure time before onset is
unpredictable amongst individuals and even in the same
individual day-to-day [24,25]. Many external factors such as
underwater action, exposure to cold and exercise will decrease the
time to CNS symptoms [26]. Decreased performance is also closely
related to the retention of carbon dioxide [27]. Oxygen toxicity is
particularly hazardous during diving because of the risks of
drowning following a seizure.
Diagnosis of CNS toxicity in divers is difficult prior to the
development of seizure activity because the early symptoms are
non-specific and do not follow a typical sequence, being potentially
related to many factors common to the underwater environment such
as narcosis, congestion and coldness. Early symptoms may be more
useful in diagnosis in those undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy.
Oxygen toxicity in divers is preventable. Protocols have been
developed since the Second World War to limit exposure and
partial pressure of oxygen inspired. In some diver training courses,
divers are taught to plan and monitor what is called the oxygen
clock of their dives. This is a notional alarm clock, which ticks more
quickly at increased partial pressure of oxygen, and is set to
activate at the maximum single exposure limit recommended in
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Diving Manual [28]. Diving
below 60metres on air would expose the diver to increasing danger
of oxygen toxicity as the partial pressure of oxygen exceeds
140 kPa so a gas mixture such as heliox (helium and oxygen) must
be used which contains the less than 21% oxygen. Recreational
divers commonly breathe nitrox up to 40% oxygen and technical
divers also use pure oxygen or nitrox containing up to 80% oxygen.
Divers who breathe oxygen fractions greater than air need to be
trained in the dangers of oxygen toxicity and how to prevent them
There are also schedules used for hyperbaric oxygen treatment
that allow periods of breathing air rather than 100% oxygen to
reduce the chance of seizure or lung damage [29]. Sessions are
restricted to less than two hours each and a pressure below the
threshold for CNS toxicity.