Inadequate intakes of calcium have been associated with increased risks of
osteoporosis, nephrolithiasis (kidney stones), colorectal cancer, hypertension and
stroke, coronary artery disease, insulin resistance and obesity. Most of these disorders
have treatments, but not cures. Owing to a lack of compelling evidence for the role of
calcium as a contributory element in relation to these diseases, estimates of calcium
requirement have been made on the basis of bone health outcomes, with the goal of
optimizing bone mineral density.