VALUE THEORY
Value theory is the branch of philosophy that studies values. It can be subdivided into ethics, aesthetics, and social and political philosophy.
In broad terms ethics concerns itself with the question of morality. What is right and what is wrong in human relations? Within morality and ethics there are three major areas: descriptive ethics, normative ethics, and met a ethics. Descriptive ethics seeks to identify moral experience in a descriptive way. We consider the conduct of individuals, or personal morality; the conduct of groups, or social morality; and the culture patterns of national and racial groups. Descriptive ethics is in part an attempt to distinguish what is from what ought to be.
A second level of inquiry is normative ethics (what ought to be). Here philosophers try to work out acceptable judgments regarding what ought to be in choice and value. “We ought to keep our promises” and “you ought to be honorable” are examples of normative judgments of the moral ought, the subject matter of ethics. From the time of the early Greeks, philosophers have formulated principles of explanation to examine why people act the way they do, and what the principles are by which people ought to live; statements of these principles are called ethical theories.6
Third, there is the area of critical or met a ethics. Here interest is centered on the analysis and meaning of the terms and language used in ethical discourse and the kind of reasoning used to justify ethical statements. Met a ethics does not propound any moral principle or goal (except by implication), but rather consists entirely of philosophical analysis. What is the meaning of ”good?” and Can ethical judgments be justified? are typical problems for met a ethics.
Philip Wheelwright has written a clear and precise definition of ethics: “Ethics may be defined as that branch of philosophy which is the systematic study of reflective choice, of the standards of right and wrong by which it is to be guided, and of the goods toward which it may ultimately be directed.”7
Broadly speaking, aesthetics concerns the theory of art and beauty. Questions of art and beauty are considered to be part of the realm of values because many philosophical problems in aesthetics involve critical judgments. There are wide differences of opinion as to what objects call forth the aesthetic response, and what beauty really is. Our concepts of beauty may differ not because of the nature of beauty itself, but because of varying degrees of preparation in discerning beauty. Therefore, if we cannot perceive beauty in objects that others find beautiful, it may be wise to withhold judgment until we are capable ourselves of making a competent analysis of the aesthetic experience.
Social and political philosophy investigates value judgments concerning society, the state, and the individual’s relation to these institutions. The following questions reflect the concerns of social and political philosophy: Why should individuals live in society? What social ideals of liberty, rights, justice, equality and responsibility are desirable? Why should anyone obey any government? Why should some individuals or groups have political power over others? What criteria are to be used in determining who should have political power? What criteria are to be used in determining the scope of political power, and what rights or freedoms should be immune from political or legal control? To what positive goals should political power be directed, and what are the criteria for determining this? Conflicting answers and applications of these philosophical questions permeate human history; the values and moral convictions of human beings are reflected in our daily social and political life.