2.3.1.3. Stage 3: TMP Jump
With regions of the membrane more fouled than others, permeability is significantly less in those specific locations. As a result, permeation is promoted in less fouled areas of the membrane, exceeding a critical flux in these localities. Under such conditions, the fouling rate rapidly increases, roughly exponentially with flux. The sudden rise in TMP or “jump” is a consequence of constant flux operation and several mechanisms can be postulated for the rapid increase in TMP under a given condition. As with classical filtration mechanisms (Figure 3), it is likely that more than one mechanism will apply when an MBR reaches the TMP jump condition and a number of models can be considered:
(i)
Inhomogeneous fouling (area loss) model: This model was proposed to explain the observed TMP profiles in nominally sub-critical filtration of upflow anaerobic sludge [111]. The TMP jump appeared to coincide with a measured loss of local permeability at different positions along the membrane, due to slow fouling by EPS. It was argued that the flux redistribution (to maintain the constant average flux) resulted in regions of sub-critical flux and consequently in rapid fouling and TMP rise.
(ii)
Inhomogeneous fouling (pore loss) model: Similar TMP transients have been observed for the crossflow MF of a model biopolymer (alginate) [112]. These trends revealed the TMP transient to occur with relatively simple feeds. The data obtained have been explained by a model that involves flux redistribution among open pores. Local pore velocities eventually exceed the critical flux of alginate aggregates that rapidly block the pores. This idea was also the base of the model proposed by Ognier et al. [113]. While the “area loss” model considers macroscopic redistribution of flux, the “pore loss” model focuses on microscopic scale. In MBR systems, it is expected that both mechanisms occur simultaneously.
(iii)
Critical suction pressure model: The two-stage pattern of a gradual TMP rise followed by a more rapid increase has been observed from studies conducted based on dead-end filtration of a fine colloid by an immersed HF. At a critical suction pressure it is suggested coagulation or collapse occurs at the base of the cake, based on membrane autopsy evaluations supplemented with modeling [114]. A very thin dense layer close to the membrane surface, as observed in the study, would account for the rapid increase in resistance leading to the TMP jump. Although this work was based on dead-end rather than crossflow operation, the mechanism could apply to any membrane system where fouling continues until the critical suction pressure is reached, where-upon the depositing compound(s) coalesce or collapse to produce a more impermeable fouling layer.
(iv)
Percolation theory: According to percolation theory, the porosity of the fouling layer gradually decreases due to the continuous filtration and material deposition within the deposit layer. At a critical condition, the fouling cake loses connectivity and resistance, resulting in a rapid increase in TMP. This model has been proposed for MBRs [115], but indicates a very rapid change (within minutes), which is not always observed in practice. However, the combination of percolation theory with the inhomogeneous fouling (area loss) model could satisfy the more typically gradual inclines observed for TMP transients. Similarly, fractal theory was successfully applied to describe cake microstructure and properties and to explain the cake compression observed during MBR operation.
(v)
Inhomogeneous fiber bundle model: Another manifestation of the TMP transient has been observed for a model fiber bundle where the flow from individual fibers was monitored [116]. The bundle was operated under suction at constant permeate flow, giving constant average flux and the flow was initially evenly distributed among the fibers. However, over the time the flows became less evenly distributed so that the standard deviation of the fluxes of individual fibers started to increase from the initial range of 0.1–0.15 up to 0.4. Consequently, the TMP rose to maintain the average flux across the fiber bundle, mirroring the increase in the standard deviation of the fluxes. At some point, both TMP and standard deviation rose rapidly. This is believed to be due to flow maldistribution within the bundle leading to local pore and flow channel occlusion. It was possible to obtain steadier TMP and standard deviation profiles when the flow regime around the fibers was more rigorously controlled by applying higher liquid and/or airflows.
More recently, the TMP jump has also been explained by poor oxygen transfer existing within the fouling layer. As a result of transfer limitation, bacteria present in the biofilm layer can die, releasing extra levels of SMP. Experimental data have shown an increase in SMP concentration at the bottom of the fouling layer when the level of DO decli