Stroke patients treated in stroke centers appear to be far more likely to receive tPA. In a study evaluating the performance of emergency department care of stroke patients, door-to-CT times were significantly shorter (p <.001) at designated stroke centers (Wojner et al., 2003). This is most likely related to the resources available at the stroke centers. Another study found that the main cause of avoidable delay in tPA administration was delay in consulting a neurologist (Cocho et al., 2005). A hospital without stroke center designation may not have a neurologist available at all times. One review of existing literature recommended having two nurses available to care for stroke patients to expedite care to give tPA within the recommended time window (Blank & Keys, 2000). A handbook for stroke centers issued by the Mid America Brain and Stroke Institute listed the following as resources required for noninvasive acute treatment of stroke: emergency department personnel trained to triage and diagnose acute stroke, a physician trained in acute stroke treatment who is available at all times, neuroimaging available to be done and interpreted in 30 to 45 minutes, a stat lab, a pharmacy available in the emergency department to mix tPA, an intensive care unit for patient admission, a stroke care path or flowchart, and an order set for acute treatment (Rymer, Summers, & Khatri, 2007). Another study found a significant increase in tPA utilization after moving the CT scanner to the emergency department and streamlining the triage process to include prenotification by EMS of incoming stroke patients (Lindsgert et al., 2006). Many of these resources may not be available in smaller hospitals and hospitals without stroke center designation. A review of literature by Rymer and Thrutchley (2005) recommended organizing regional networks to ensure that stroke patients were transported to designated stroke centers. The ASA also recommends coordinating stroke treatment across the continuum of care (Schwamm et al., 2005). Access to appropriate resources is a key element in rapid stroke treatment.
There were also studies performed to evaluate the effectiveness of staff training in improving stroke treatment in non-stroke centers. In one study, evidence-based standards of care were implemented for stroke patients. The study showed decreases in door-to-CT times and increases in tPA use (Kavanaugh, Connolly, & Cohen, 2005). However, this was a small nonrandom sample. Lindsgert et al. (2006) improved door-to-CT times and increased tPA use by streamlining processes in the emergency department.
Although clinical practice guidelines and processes are in place in designated stroke centers, nurses are a key element in adherence to clinical practice guidelines. According to Hysong, Best, and Pugh (2006), organizations that provided timely, individualized, nonpunitive, and customizable feedback have been found to have better adherence to clinical practice guidelines. Providing appropriate feedback to nurses implementing clinical practice guidelines and processes is an area worthy of study regardless of stroke center designation. Further evaluation of such interventions is necessary.
Discussion
Most research in this area has been conducted in the area of prehospital delays. In addition to the numerous studies indicating that stroke survivors lack knowledge regarding stroke symptoms, other studies indicate that mode of hospital arrival and physician contacts prior to going to the emergency department contribute to prehospital delays. As discussed earlier, those with comfortable incomes took longer to arrive at the hospital (Maze & Bakas, 2004). It is possible that these patients, for insurance reasons, were more likely to make a medical contact prior to going to the emergency room, which has been found to increase hospital arrival time. EMS use was also found to be a major contributing factor to early hospital arrival time and increased tPA utilization.
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