. In this section, we first describe and discuss this literature in terms of what it says about the role
and conduct of argument in addressing three emphases in science teaching: developing
conceptual understanding; developing investigational capability; and developing an understanding
of scientific epistemology. Second, we consider what is known about students’
difficulties with scientific argument. Finally, all of these aspects are of central importance
for the consideration of contemporary socioscientific issues and the development of “scientific
literacy