Second, the system should be causally
oriented by capturing the drivers of performance rather than just the end results. For example, Eccles I8L Fisher 19]. Kaplan 11OJ. Howell, Brown, Soucy, Seed [11] and
others stress the importance of including nonfinancial metrics, which drive the financial results, in measurement systems. Systems with metrics of this sort can provide
deeper insight into performance than purely financial measurement systems.
Third, a performance measurement system should be vertically integrated by linking the overall corporate strategy to the particular types of decision making at each
level in the organization. Lynch and Cross 112] and Ernst & Whinney 113] illustrate the importance of aligning lower level performance measurement systems with firm-wide objectives to encourage what Anthony [14] refers to as "goal congruence."
Finally, performance measurement systems should be horizontally integrated or aligned along a process rather than with each function or department. Lee and Billington 115]. Maisel 171. Keegan, et al. [2]. and others describe how measurement
systems which concentrate on functional areas can discourage coordination and lower overall system performance. This is a primary emphasis of supply chain integration initiatives.