05
Previous Estimates of Air Travel Demand
Elasticities
The results from previous studies of air travel
demand elasticities vary in accordance
with the type of elasticity that is estimated.
Nevertheless, there are several key themes
that can be identified that provide insights
into the sensitivity of air travel demand.
There is a substantial amount of evidence on air travel
demand elasticities available from previous studies.
However, these studies have also produced a wide variety
of results, reflecting large differences in the nature and
scope of the elasticities that have been looked at. As
part of its research, InterVISTAS Consulting reviewed the
available literature on demand elasticities. This chapter
summarises the key themes that can be identified across
the different studies.
Overview of Previous Studies
The review of previous studies helps to provide a greater
understanding of air travel price elasticities and provides
important insights for the new econometric analysis by
InterVISTAS Consulting (discussed in the next chapter).
The review looked at several academic and government
commissioned studies . The different studies
7
produced a
wide range of air travel price elasticity estimates, varying
in accordance with the markets analysed, the time period
assessed, the methodology used and the available data.
Even within some particular studies, a range of elasticities
are estimated for different markets.
For example, a commonly referenced study by Gillen,
Morrison and Stewart
8
found demand elasticities ranging
from -0.1 to -1.7, depending on the relevant market. It
identified various elasticity estimates for several distinct
markets for air travel, such as:
Long-Haul Price Elasticities
International Business: -0.3•
Domestic Business: -1.1•
International Leisure: -1.0•
Domestic Leisure: -1.1•
Short-Haul Price Elasticities
Business: -0.7•
Leisure: -1.5•
Key Themes
A review of the existing literature of previous studies on air
travel price elasticities shows a number of consistentthemes.
All of the studies reviewed, spanning a period of over 25
years, found that there was a significant demand response
to changes in air travel prices. The consistency of this result
strongly indicates that any policy action that results in higher
prices (e.g. passenger taxes, increased landing fees) will
result in a decline in demand. However, critically, the extent
of that decline will depend on a number of factors:
In general,
all else being equal, business travellers are less
sensitive to travel price changes (less elastic) than
leisure travellers. Intuitively, this result is plausible;
business travellers generally have less flexibility to
postpone or cancel their travel than leisure travellers.
Nevertheless, the studies do show that even business
travel will decline in the face of price increases, albeit
not to the same extent as leisure travel.
Short-Haul Versus Long-Haul Travel.• Another
consistent result was that air travel price elasticities
on short-haul routes were generally higher than on
long-haul routes. In part, this reflects the opportunity
for inter-modal substitution on short-haul routes (e.g.
travellers can switch to rail or car in response to air
travel price increases).
Airline Vs Market Vs National Elasticities.• Some of
the studies supported the concept that the demand
elasticity faced by an individual airline is higher than
that faced by the whole market. For example, Oum,
Zhang, and Zhang (1993) estimated firm-specific
elasticities in the U.S. and estimated values ranging
from -1.24 to -2.34, while studies estimating market or
route elasticities ranged from -0.6 to -1.6. In contrast,
Alperovich and Machnes (1994) and Njegovan (2006)
used national-level measures of air travel in Israel and
the UK respectively and produced even lower elasticity
values (-0.27 and -0.7, respectively).
Income Elasticities.• Many of the studies also
included income as an explanatory variable of air travel
demand. This will isolate the effects of a shift along
the demand curve (caused by a change in air travel
price) from the effect of a shift of the whole demand
curve (caused by a change in incomes or GDP).
The studies including the income term all produced
positive income elasticities, as would be expected
(air travel increases as incomes increase). Virtually all
of these studies estimated income elasticities above
one, generally between +1 and +2. This indicates air
travel increases at a higher rate than income growth.
This has important implications for policies seeking to
manage air travel demand by raising the price of travel.
06
New Estimates of Price and Income
Elasticities of Air Travel Demand
New econometric research builds on the
work of previous studies to show that
demand elasticities vary according to the
level of aggregation and the location of
the market. It develops guideline demand
elasticity estimates to use for different
situations.
05 Previous Estimates of Air Travel Demand ElasticitiesThe results from previous studies of air travel demand elasticities vary in accordance with the type of elasticity that is estimated. Nevertheless, there are several key themes that can be identified that provide insights into the sensitivity of air travel demand.There is a substantial amount of evidence on air travel demand elasticities available from previous studies. However, these studies have also produced a wide variety of results, reflecting large differences in the nature and scope of the elasticities that have been looked at. As part of its research, InterVISTAS Consulting reviewed the available literature on demand elasticities. This chapter summarises the key themes that can be identified across the different studies.Overview of Previous StudiesThe review of previous studies helps to provide a greater understanding of air travel price elasticities and provides important insights for the new econometric analysis by InterVISTAS Consulting (discussed in the next chapter). The review looked at several academic and government commissioned studies . The different studies7 produced a wide range of air travel price elasticity estimates, varying in accordance with the markets analysed, the time period assessed, the methodology used and the available data. Even within some particular studies, a range of elasticities are estimated for different markets. For example, a commonly referenced study by Gillen, Morrison and Stewart8 found demand elasticities ranging from -0.1 to -1.7, depending on the relevant market. It identified various elasticity estimates for several distinct markets for air travel, such as:Long-Haul Price ElasticitiesInternational Business: -0.3• Domestic Business: -1.1• International Leisure: -1.0• Domestic Leisure: -1.1• Short-Haul Price ElasticitiesBusiness: -0.7• Leisure: -1.5• Key ThemesA review of the existing literature of previous studies on air travel price elasticities shows a number of consistentthemes. All of the studies reviewed, spanning a period of over 25 years, found that there was a significant demand response to changes in air travel prices. The consistency of this result strongly indicates that any policy action that results in higher prices (e.g. passenger taxes, increased landing fees) will result in a decline in demand. However, critically, the extent of that decline will depend on a number of factors: In general, all else being equal, business travellers are less sensitive to travel price changes (less elastic) than leisure travellers. Intuitively, this result is plausible; business travellers generally have less flexibility to postpone or cancel their travel than leisure travellers. Nevertheless, the studies do show that even business travel will decline in the face of price increases, albeit not to the same extent as leisure travel.Short-Haul Versus Long-Haul Travel.• Another consistent result was that air travel price elasticities on short-haul routes were generally higher than on long-haul routes. In part, this reflects the opportunity for inter-modal substitution on short-haul routes (e.g. travellers can switch to rail or car in response to air travel price increases). Airline Vs Market Vs National Elasticities.• Some of the studies supported the concept that the demand elasticity faced by an individual airline is higher than that faced by the whole market. For example, Oum, Zhang, and Zhang (1993) estimated firm-specific elasticities in the U.S. and estimated values ranging from -1.24 to -2.34, while studies estimating market or route elasticities ranged from -0.6 to -1.6. In contrast, Alperovich and Machnes (1994) and Njegovan (2006) used national-level measures of air travel in Israel and the UK respectively and produced even lower elasticity values (-0.27 and -0.7, respectively).Income Elasticities.• Many of the studies also included income as an explanatory variable of air travel demand. This will isolate the effects of a shift along the demand curve (caused by a change in air travel price) from the effect of a shift of the whole demand curve (caused by a change in incomes or GDP). The studies including the income term all produced positive income elasticities, as would be expected (air travel increases as incomes increase). Virtually all of these studies estimated income elasticities above one, generally between +1 and +2. This indicates air travel increases at a higher rate than income growth. This has important implications for policies seeking to manage air travel demand by raising the price of travel.06 New Estimates of Price and Income Elasticities of Air Travel DemandNew econometric research builds on the work of previous studies to show that demand elasticities vary according to the level of aggregation and the location of the market. It develops guideline demand elasticity estimates to use for different situations.
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