4. Discussion
Our study showed that caffeine at an ineffective dose enhanced the antidepressant-like effect of the reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor (moclobemide), the serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (venlafaxine and milnacipran), and the dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (bupropion) administered also in non-effective doses. The FST outcomes indicated a synergistic action of caffeine in combination with the tested drugs without affecting the spontaneous locomotor activity of mice.
It is well known, that caffeine exerts its action on the central nervous system mainly through A1 and A2A adenosine receptors for which it acts as a non-selective antagonist. Caffeine enhances neurotransmission in the CNS by increasing the release of various neurotransmitters, such as: acetylcholine (ACh), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, dopamine (DA), noradrenaline (NA), and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), which has been confirmed in numerous studies both in vitro and in vivo [11], [25] and [67]. A long-term treatment with antidepressant drugs also affects neurotransmitter systems resulting in an elevation of mood [33] and [44]. Drugs which through its mechanisms of action contribute to the increase in the level of serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine in the CNS play a vital role in the antidepressant therapy [12]. In the presented study, four drugs that have a proven antidepressant activity and act by increasing monoamine neurotransmission have been co-administered with caffeine. Two of them, venlafaxine and milnacipran, are considered to be a dual serotonin–noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) [3], [41] and [65]. Results from clinical research indicate that simultaneous inhibition of both NA and 5-HT may induce enhanced antidepressant activity in comparison with drugs selectively acting only on one monoamine level [36]. According to Kale and Addepalli [32], a significant decrease in immobility period was observed after concomitant administration of the non-effective doses of caffeine and duloxetine (5 mg/kg, each), another SNRI. Milnacipran (1.25 mg/kg) and venlafaxine (1 mg/kg) administered together with caffeine (5 mg/kg) significantly shortened the immobility time in the FST in mice. The results were not due to an increase in locomotor activity of animals. These results are the first to indicate the synergistic effects of caffeine administered together with milnacipran and venlafaxine. The observed increase in antidepressant activity can be explained by the intensification of the noradrenergic and serotonergic transmission in CNS by caffeine. A confirmation of this hypothesis may be a better brain monoamine profile observed by Kale and Addepalli [32] in the animal group receiving duloxetine with caffeine compared with other treated groups. It has been estimated that, in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex as well as throughout the brain, levels of 5-HT, NA, and DA increased in mice receiving duloxetine and caffeine at the same time [32].
Similar concentrations of monoamines in the rats' hippocampus have been reported by Piacentini et al. [51] after administration of an active dose of bupropion, which preferentially inhibits the synaptic reuptake of dopamine [60]. Moreover, bupropion also restrains norepinephrine reuptake, which increases extracellular levels of both norepinephrine and dopamine in the structures of the brain [15] and [70]. Caffeine has a similar effect on enhancing dopaminergic transmission. The observed changes in dopaminergic transmission after its administration can be explained by adenosine–acetylcholine–dopamine interaction [17] and [33]. A stimulation of adenosine A1 receptors localized in striato-pallidal and striatonigral neurons, cholinergic interneurons and dopamine nerve endings inhibits dopamine D1 receptors [5], [19], [20], [31], [37] and [56]. It has been shown that adenosine A2A receptors are found in brain regions rich in DA — striatum, nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, and cerebral cortex [17].
Agonistic effects on adenosine-A2A receptors decrease the affinity of dopamine receptor antagonists for the D2 receptor [17] and [18] and lead to a reduction in D2 dopamine receptor signaling. The A2A receptors located in striatopallidal neurons seem to fulfill the same role as the D2 receptors in striatonigral neurons [5], [31], [37] and [56]. This interaction is not only limited to dopamine D2 and adenosine A2A receptors [4]. Ferre et al. [18] noticed that blockade of adenosine A2A receptors intensifies transduction by dopamine D1 receptors. The ability of caffeine to block both pre- and postsynaptic adenosine receptors and hence to potentiate the dopaminergic neurotransmission is considered to be the main mechanism of the production of psychomotor activity [16]. In addition, it has been shown that low doses of caffeine have the effect similar to using a selective A2A receptor antagonist [62] and [63]. Thus, as observed in our study, shortening the time of mice immobility in the FST in the group receiving both caffeine (5 mg/kg) and bupropion (10 mg/kg) can be explained by two distinct ways. On the one hand, it is the severity of dopaminergic neurotransmission by the antagonistic effect of caffeine on the A1 and A2A receptors, on the other hand, the inhibition of neuronal DA reuptake by bupropion that potentiates the DA signaling in the CNS. At the same time, both substances also increase noradrenergic neurotransmission [47] and [60]. Kale and Addepalli [32] in their research on mice, where bupropion and caffeine at doses of 5 mg/kg each have been co-administered, also observed a statistically significant reduction in the immobility time of animals in the FST and in the tail suspension test. The further research undertaken to estimate the level of monoamines in the brain structures showed that the combined application of these agents led to the increased concentrations of NA, DA, and 5-HT in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and thus the whole brain.
Until now, the effects of caffeine on the antidepressant effects of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) have not been studied. The results of our study indicate that co-administration of caffeine (5 mg/kg) and moclobemide (1.5 mg/kg), a reversible inhibitor of MAO-A, significantly reduced the duration of immobility time in the FST in mice. It is widely known, that moclobemide increases the level of NA, DA, and 5-HT in the synaptic slots, leading to excitation of the CNS transduction, but it also leads to dose-dependence in the level of catecholamine metabolites [7], [8], [9], [10], [34] and [38]. The observed synergistic activity is probably due to the fact that caffeine aggravates noradrenergic, serotonergic, and dopaminergic transmissions [11], [25] and [67]. Clinical studies have shown that patients positively responded to the therapy with moclo-bemide, and psychostimulants, like amphetamine and methylphenidate [61].
The main fly in the ointment of the FST is that drugs affecting spontaneous locomotor activity may yield false-positive/false-negative results [50]. Therefore, the spontaneous activity test was performed to exclude the possibility that the results obtained in the FST are due to the severity of mice locomotor activity. The combined administration of caffeine with milnacipran, venlafaxine, bupropion, and moclobemide did not affect motor performance in mice. Also, a separate injection of the tested substances did not significantly influence the locomotor activity of animals.
It is known that isoenzyme CYP1A2 of cytochrome P450 participates in the biotransformation of many drugs, including medications used in the treatment of depression and psychosis [2] and [46]. In vitro and in vivo studies indicate that the activity of this isoenzyme may vary due to the consumption of nutrients, including caffeine as well as drugs that may induce or inhibit CYP1A2 activity [24] and [28]. Caffeine is metabolized in more than 95% by the liver via CYP1A2 [27] and [64]. Clinically significant pharmacokinetic interactions between caffeine and other drugs are related to the amount and activity of this isoenzyme [39] and [48]. Pharmacokinetic studies carried out in the present research were aimed at assessing concentrations of antidepressants in the blood and brain of mice after their combined administration with caffeine and estimating the nature of the drug–drug interactions. The existing data on the changes in the therapeutic effect of antidepressants caused by concomitant administration of caffeine were based solely on the results obtained in behavioral tests [32] and [55] and on the levels of monoamines in the brain structures [32]. The results of our study indicate, that in the case of the combined administration of caffeine and venlafaxine, bupropion, or moclobemide the effect observed in the FST was related to pharmacodynamic rather than pharmacokinetic interactions because caffeine did not alter these drugs' concentrations either in serum or brain homogenates. The interaction of caffeine–milnacipran is not entirely clear, because there were no differences in drug concentrations in CNS, which is the target site of action of antidepressants. In the case of drugs acting on the CNS, it is considered that there should be a correlation between the concentration of the drug in blood and brain tissue. Disturbance or competition in drug transport across the blood–brain barrier may be a probable cause of this discrepancy [13]. Caution should be kept in the formulation of proposals for caffeine–antidepressant interactions, as metabolism of these drugs in humans may proceed differently than in rodents.
4. สนทนาการศึกษาของเราพบว่า คาเฟอีนที่ยามีผลเพิ่มผล antidepressant เช่นสมมติ monoamine oxidase ผล (moclobemide), inhibitors reuptake serotonin – norepinephrine (venlafaxine และ milnacipran), และการโดปามีนและ norepinephrine reuptake ผล (bupropion) ยังจัดการในปริมาณที่ไม่มีประสิทธิภาพ ผล FST ระบุการดำเนินการที่พลังของคาเฟอีนร่วมกับยาเสพติดที่ผ่านการทดสอบโดยไม่กระทบกิจกรรม locomotor อยู่ของหนูIt is well known, that caffeine exerts its action on the central nervous system mainly through A1 and A2A adenosine receptors for which it acts as a non-selective antagonist. Caffeine enhances neurotransmission in the CNS by increasing the release of various neurotransmitters, such as: acetylcholine (ACh), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, dopamine (DA), noradrenaline (NA), and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), which has been confirmed in numerous studies both in vitro and in vivo [11], [25] and [67]. A long-term treatment with antidepressant drugs also affects neurotransmitter systems resulting in an elevation of mood [33] and [44]. Drugs which through its mechanisms of action contribute to the increase in the level of serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine in the CNS play a vital role in the antidepressant therapy [12]. In the presented study, four drugs that have a proven antidepressant activity and act by increasing monoamine neurotransmission have been co-administered with caffeine. Two of them, venlafaxine and milnacipran, are considered to be a dual serotonin–noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) [3], [41] and [65]. Results from clinical research indicate that simultaneous inhibition of both NA and 5-HT may induce enhanced antidepressant activity in comparison with drugs selectively acting only on one monoamine level [36]. According to Kale and Addepalli [32], a significant decrease in immobility period was observed after concomitant administration of the non-effective doses of caffeine and duloxetine (5 mg/kg, each), another SNRI. Milnacipran (1.25 mg/kg) and venlafaxine (1 mg/kg) administered together with caffeine (5 mg/kg) significantly shortened the immobility time in the FST in mice. The results were not due to an increase in locomotor activity of animals. These results are the first to indicate the synergistic effects of caffeine administered together with milnacipran and venlafaxine. The observed increase in antidepressant activity can be explained by the intensification of the noradrenergic and serotonergic transmission in CNS by caffeine. A confirmation of this hypothesis may be a better brain monoamine profile observed by Kale and Addepalli [32] in the animal group receiving duloxetine with caffeine compared with other treated groups. It has been estimated that, in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex as well as throughout the brain, levels of 5-HT, NA, and DA increased in mice receiving duloxetine and caffeine at the same time [32].Similar concentrations of monoamines in the rats' hippocampus have been reported by Piacentini et al. [51] after administration of an active dose of bupropion, which preferentially inhibits the synaptic reuptake of dopamine [60]. Moreover, bupropion also restrains norepinephrine reuptake, which increases extracellular levels of both norepinephrine and dopamine in the structures of the brain [15] and [70]. Caffeine has a similar effect on enhancing dopaminergic transmission. The observed changes in dopaminergic transmission after its administration can be explained by adenosine–acetylcholine–dopamine interaction [17] and [33]. A stimulation of adenosine A1 receptors localized in striato-pallidal and striatonigral neurons, cholinergic interneurons and dopamine nerve endings inhibits dopamine D1 receptors [5], [19], [20], [31], [37] and [56]. It has been shown that adenosine A2A receptors are found in brain regions rich in DA — striatum, nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, and cerebral cortex [17].Agonistic effects on adenosine-A2A receptors decrease the affinity of dopamine receptor antagonists for the D2 receptor [17] and [18] and lead to a reduction in D2 dopamine receptor signaling. The A2A receptors located in striatopallidal neurons seem to fulfill the same role as the D2 receptors in striatonigral neurons [5], [31], [37] and [56]. This interaction is not only limited to dopamine D2 and adenosine A2A receptors [4]. Ferre et al. [18] noticed that blockade of adenosine A2A receptors intensifies transduction by dopamine D1 receptors. The ability of caffeine to block both pre- and postsynaptic adenosine receptors and hence to potentiate the dopaminergic neurotransmission is considered to be the main mechanism of the production of psychomotor activity [16]. In addition, it has been shown that low doses of caffeine have the effect similar to using a selective A2A receptor antagonist [62] and [63]. Thus, as observed in our study, shortening the time of mice immobility in the FST in the group receiving both caffeine (5 mg/kg) and bupropion (10 mg/kg) can be explained by two distinct ways. On the one hand, it is the severity of dopaminergic neurotransmission by the antagonistic effect of caffeine on the A1 and A2A receptors, on the other hand, the inhibition of neuronal DA reuptake by bupropion that potentiates the DA signaling in the CNS. At the same time, both substances also increase noradrenergic neurotransmission [47] and [60]. Kale and Addepalli [32] in their research on mice, where bupropion and caffeine at doses of 5 mg/kg each have been co-administered, also observed a statistically significant reduction in the immobility time of animals in the FST and in the tail suspension test. The further research undertaken to estimate the level of monoamines in the brain structures showed that the combined application of these agents led to the increased concentrations of NA, DA, and 5-HT in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and thus the whole brain.
Until now, the effects of caffeine on the antidepressant effects of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) have not been studied. The results of our study indicate that co-administration of caffeine (5 mg/kg) and moclobemide (1.5 mg/kg), a reversible inhibitor of MAO-A, significantly reduced the duration of immobility time in the FST in mice. It is widely known, that moclobemide increases the level of NA, DA, and 5-HT in the synaptic slots, leading to excitation of the CNS transduction, but it also leads to dose-dependence in the level of catecholamine metabolites [7], [8], [9], [10], [34] and [38]. The observed synergistic activity is probably due to the fact that caffeine aggravates noradrenergic, serotonergic, and dopaminergic transmissions [11], [25] and [67]. Clinical studies have shown that patients positively responded to the therapy with moclo-bemide, and psychostimulants, like amphetamine and methylphenidate [61].
The main fly in the ointment of the FST is that drugs affecting spontaneous locomotor activity may yield false-positive/false-negative results [50]. Therefore, the spontaneous activity test was performed to exclude the possibility that the results obtained in the FST are due to the severity of mice locomotor activity. The combined administration of caffeine with milnacipran, venlafaxine, bupropion, and moclobemide did not affect motor performance in mice. Also, a separate injection of the tested substances did not significantly influence the locomotor activity of animals.
It is known that isoenzyme CYP1A2 of cytochrome P450 participates in the biotransformation of many drugs, including medications used in the treatment of depression and psychosis [2] and [46]. In vitro and in vivo studies indicate that the activity of this isoenzyme may vary due to the consumption of nutrients, including caffeine as well as drugs that may induce or inhibit CYP1A2 activity [24] and [28]. Caffeine is metabolized in more than 95% by the liver via CYP1A2 [27] and [64]. Clinically significant pharmacokinetic interactions between caffeine and other drugs are related to the amount and activity of this isoenzyme [39] and [48]. Pharmacokinetic studies carried out in the present research were aimed at assessing concentrations of antidepressants in the blood and brain of mice after their combined administration with caffeine and estimating the nature of the drug–drug interactions. The existing data on the changes in the therapeutic effect of antidepressants caused by concomitant administration of caffeine were based solely on the results obtained in behavioral tests [32] and [55] and on the levels of monoamines in the brain structures [32]. The results of our study indicate, that in the case of the combined administration of caffeine and venlafaxine, bupropion, or moclobemide the effect observed in the FST was related to pharmacodynamic rather than pharmacokinetic interactions because caffeine did not alter these drugs' concentrations either in serum or brain homogenates. The interaction of caffeine–milnacipran is not entirely clear, because there were no differences in drug concentrations in CNS, which is the target site of action of antidepressants. In the case of drugs acting on the CNS, it is considered that there should be a correlation between the concentration of the drug in blood and brain tissue. Disturbance or competition in drug transport across the blood–brain barrier may be a probable cause of this discrepancy [13]. Caution should be kept in the formulation of proposals for caffeine–antidepressant interactions, as metabolism of these drugs in humans may proceed differently than in rodents.
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