Gender-based discrimination permeates all cultures, and is often manifested in the laws, policies, and practices of institutions. For example, in many countries women are not afforded the same inheritance rights and property rights as men, nor are they allowed to testify in court. Even where constitutional guarantees provide for equality and laws protect women’s rights, discriminatory practices by law enforcement and security services, courts, lawyers and social services can serve as major obstacles to women’s security and access to justice. Customary and traditional norms and practices, including informal justice mechanisms, may perpetuate gross violations of the rights of women and girls.