Despite this, the World Health Organization has estimated that long-term PM2.5 exposure is responsible for approximately 5% of all cancers of the trachea, bronchus, and lung (9).
To address the potential for residual confounding by cigarette smoking status,
the present study examined associations between mean long-term ambient PM2.5 concentrations and lung cancer mortality in a 26-year (1982–2008) prospective follow-up of 188,699 lifelong never-smoking CPS-II participants.