This diversity in beyond regulatory corporate environmental actions leads us back to the previous
discussion of material outcomes. Heterogeneity in corporate environmentalism can highlight
differences in the actual and/or perceived costs, risks, and benefits regarding environmental issues
along with differences in what corporations consider effective means of addressing those potential
risks. What is less clear is the relationship between variations in corporate environmentalism and
actual environmental outcomes. As mentioned previously, research evaluating voluntary programs
has found that environmental behaviors and outcomes most often do not change with participation
in a voluntary program and that in some cases the environmental performance of firms actually
decreased (deLeon & Rivera, 2007; Dietz & Stern, 2002). The research on this continues as scholars
investigate if program characteristics result in different environmental results. Potoski and Prakash
(2005) find that U.S. firms participating in ISO-14001 do reduce their pollution emissions more
than noncertified facilities. They summarize the results of a number of other past programs reporting
that