The best example of decision-making in a tightly coupled organization is a military unit in which a strict chain of command makes clear the question of who is to follow which orders. Academic organizations are the opposite. No one is ever quite sure which constituencies need to be involved in decisional processes or how decisions are finally made. These processes also change from institution-to-institution, year-to-year, and decision-to-decision. Given the abstruse context for decision-making, faculty frequently remove themselves from the process because they feel that discussion about a particular topic is a waste of time. In turn, administrators decide to act without involving a particular faculty group, which then causes faculty to complain that they were not consulted. The implementation of the innovation grinds to a halt.