sighted along a line transect in the direction indicated by the arrow. The key measurement is
the perpendicular distance (xi). If the sighting distance (ri) is easier to record in the field, the
sighting angle (θ) must also be measured. The perpendicular distance x = r sin θ. Note that
not all individuals need to be seen for this method to work.
p. 161). Line transects are best used for visible mammals in open habitats. The sample size should
be at least 40 sightings, and better results are obtained from 60–80 sightings.
Advantages and disadvantages
Roads and tracks are often used as the path of the line transect, and there is a general problem of
non-random sampling of the study area if convenience sampling is used instead of random sampling.
Individuals must be located before they move or the detection function will be biased. If too
many animals are observed, there may be problems with recording perpendicular distances accurately.
Observers vary greatly in their ability to see animals, particularly if the habitat is less open.
Perpendicular distances should be measured accurately rather than just estimated. If the species
being studied is rare, it might be difficult to obtain the recommended sample size of 40 sightings.
If habitats are interspersed, it might not be possible to get habitat-specific estimates of abundance.
Line transects can be used to estimate the abundance of indices of mammal activity, such as
dung piles and burrows. A line transect may be converted to a rectangular sampling quadrat of
fixed size if the observer can be certain of sighting all individuals within the fixed strip. This
approach is not recommended for most mammals because detectability is not usually 100% and,
in constraining sightings to a fixed strip width, data are lost for sightings more distant from the
path of the line transect.
358 Mammals
Biases
The most important biases arise from non-random sampling from roads or other paths of convenient
travel. Perpendicular distances may be underestimated if they are not measured accurately.
It is critical that all individuals on the centreline of the path are detected. For sea mammals such
as whales or dolphins that surface only momentarily, it may be difficult to determine the sighting
distance.
Aerial surveys
Large mammals that are readily seen from the air can be censused most effectively from aerial
surveys that utilise light aircraft or helicopters. The most common method involves flying strip