gamma wave is a pattern of neural o

gamma wave is a pattern of neural oscillation in humans with a frequency between 25 and 100 Hz,[1] though 40 Hz is typical.[2]

According to a popular theory, gamma waves may be implicated in creating the unity of conscious perception (the binding problem).[3][4][5] However, there is no agreement on the theory; as a researcher suggests:
Whether or not gamma wave activity is related to subjective awareness is a very difficult question which cannot be answered with certainty at the present time.[6]

History

Gamma waves were initially ignored before the development of digital electroencephalography as analog electroencephalography is restricted to recording and measuring rhythms that are usually less than 25 Hz.[1] One of the earliest reports on them was in 1964 using recordings of the electrical activity of electrodes implanted in the visual cortex of awake monkeys.[7]
Linked to unity of consciousness?
History of idea

The idea that distinct regions in the brain were being stimulated simultaneously was suggested by the finding in 1988[2] that two neurons oscillate synchronously (though they are not directly connected) when a single external object stimulates their respective receptive fields. Subsequent experiments by many others demonstrated this phenomenon in a wide range of visual cognition. In particular, Francis Crick and Christof Koch in 1990[8] argued that there is a significant relation between the binding problem and the problem of visual consciousness and, as a result, that synchronous 40 Hz oscillations may be causally implicated in visual awareness as well as in visual binding. Later the same authors expressed scepticism over the idea that 40 Hz oscillations are a sufficient condition for visual awareness.[9]

A lead article by Andreas K. Engel et al. in the journal Consciousness and Cognition (1999) that argues for temporal synchrony as the basis for consciousness, defines the gamma wave hypothesis thus: [10]
The hypothesis is that synchronization of neuronal discharges can serve for the integration of distributed neurons into cell assemblies and that this process may underlie the selection of perceptually and behaviorally relevant information.
Role in attentive focus

The suggested mechanism is that gamma waves relate to neural consciousness via the mechanism for conscious attention:
The proposed answer lies in a wave that, originating in the thalamus, sweeps the brain from front to back, 40 times per second, drawing different neuronal circuits into synch with the precept, and thereby bringing the precept into the attentional foreground. If the thalamus is damaged even a little bit, this wave stops, conscious awarenesses do not form, and the patient slips into profound coma.[4]

Thus the claim is that when all these neuronal clusters oscillate together during these transient periods of synchronized firing, they help bring up memories and associations from the visual precept to other notions. This brings a distributed matrix of cognitive processes together to generate a coherent, concerted cognitive act, such as perception. This has led to theories that gamma waves are associated with solving the binding problem.[3]

Gamma waves are observed as neural synchrony from visual cues in both conscious and subliminal stimuli.[11][12][13] [14] This research also sheds light on how neural synchrony may explain stochastic resonance in the nervous system.[15] Gamma Waves are also implicated during Rapid eye movement sleep and anesthesia, which involves visualizations.[6]
Contemporary research

A 2009 study published in Nature successfully induced gamma waves in mice brains. Researchers performed this study using optogenetics (the method of combining genetic engineering with light to manipulate the activity of individual nerve cells). The protein channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), which sensitizes cells to light, was genetically engineered into these mice, specifically to be expressed in a target-group of interneurons. These fast-spiking (FS) interneurons, known for high electrical activity, were then activated with an optical fiber and laser—the second step in optogenetics. In this way, the cell activity of these interneurons was manipulated in the frequency range of 8–200 Hz. The study produced empirical evidence of gamma wave induction in the approximate interval of 25–100 Hz. The gamma waves were most apparent at a frequency of 40 Hz; this indicates that the gamma waves evoked by FS manipulation are a resonating brain circuit property. This is the first study in which it has been shown that a brain state can be induced through the activation of a specific group of cells.[16]
Relation to meditation

Experiments on Tibetan Buddhist monks have shown a correlation between transcendental mental states and gamma waves.[17][18] A suggested explanation is based on the fact that the gamma is intrinsically localized. Neuroscientist Sean O'Nuallain suggests that this very existence of synchronized gamma indicates that something akin to a singularity - or, to be more prosaic, a conscious experience - is occurring.[17] This work adduces experimental and simulated data to show that what meditation masters have in common is the ability to put the brain into a state in which it is maximally sensitive.

As hinted above, gamma waves have been observed in Tibetan Buddhist monks. A 2004 study took eight long-term Tibetan Buddhist practitioners of meditation and, using electrodes, monitored the patterns of electrical activity produced by their brains as they meditated. The researchers compared the brain activity of the monks to a group of novice meditators (the study had these subjects meditate an hour a day for one week prior to empirical observation). In a normal meditative state, both groups were shown to have similar brain activity. However, when the monks were told to generate an objective feeling of compassion during meditation, their brain activity began to fire in a rhythmic, coherent manner, suggesting neuronal structures were firing in harmony. This was observed at a frequency of 25–40 Hz, the rhythm of gamma waves. These gamma-band oscillations in the monk’s brain signals were the largest seen in humans (apart from those in states such as seizures). Conversely, these gamma-band oscillations were scant in novice meditators. Though, a number of rhythmic signals did appear to strengthen in beginner meditators with further experience in the exercise, implying that the aptitude for one to produce gamma-band rhythm is trainable.[19]

Such evidence and research in gamma-band oscillations may explain the heightened sense of consciousness, bliss, and intellectual acuity subsequent to meditation. Notably, meditation is known to have a number of health benefits: stress reduction, mood elevation, and increased life expectancy of the mind and its cognitive functions. The current Dalai Lama meditates for four hours each morning, and he says that it is hard work. He elaborates that if neuroscience can construct a way in which he can reap the psychological and biological rewards of meditation without going through the practice each morning, he would be apt to adopt the innovation.[20]
Opposing evidence

Many neuroscientists are not convinced of the gamma wave argument. Arguments against it range from the possibility of mismeasurement – it has been suggested that EEG-measured gamma waves could be in many cases an artifact of electromyographic activity[21][22] – to relations to other neural function, such as minute eye movements.[23]

However, proponents like O'Nuallain and Andreas Engel argue that gamma evidence persists even with careful signal separation.[17][24]

Moreover, recent studies using magnetoencephalography (MEG), which does not suffer the potential artifacts associated with EEG, have identified gamma activity associated with sensory processing, mainly in the visual cortex.[25][26][27][28]

Bearing this theory in mind, a number of questions remain unexplained regarding details of exactly how the temporal synchrony results in a conscious awareness or how a new percept "calls for"[4] the synchrony, etc.
See also
Brain waves
Delta wave – (0.1 – 3 Hz)
Theta wave – (4 – 7 Hz)
Alpha wave – (8 – 15 Hz)
Mu wave – (7.5 – 12.5 Hz)
SMR wave – (12.5 – 15.5 Hz)
Beta wave – (16 – 31 Hz)
Gamma wave – (32 – 100 Hz)
References
^ a b Hughes JR (July 2008). "Gamma, fast, and ultrafast waves of the brain: their relationships with epilepsy and behavior". Epilepsy Behav 13 (1): 25–31. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.01.011. PMID 18439878.
^ a b Ian Gold (1999). "Does 40-Hz oscillation play a role in visual consciousness?". Consciousness and Cognition 8 (2): 186–195. doi:10.1006/ccog.1999.0399. PMID 10448001.
^ a b Buzsaki, György (2006). "Cycle 9, The Gamma Buzz". Rhythms of the brain. Oxford.
^ a b c Robert Pollack, The Missing Moment, 1999
^ Singer, W.; Gray, C.M. (1995). "Visual feature integration and the temporal correlation hypothesis". Annu. Rev. Neurosci 18: 555–586. doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.003011.
^ a b Vanderwolf CH (Feb 2000). "Are neocortical gamma waves related to consciousness?". Brain Res 855 (2): 217–24. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(99)02351-3. PMID 10677593.
^ Hughes JR. (1964). Responses from the visual cortex of unanesthetized monkeys. pp. 99–153. In: Pfeiffer CC, Smythies JR, (Eds), International review of neurobiology vol. 7, Academic Press, New York OCLC 43986646
^ Crick, F., & Koch, C. (1990b). Towards a neurobiological theory of consciousness. Seminars in the Neurosciences v.2, 263-275.
^ Crick, F., Koch, C. (2003). "Framework for consciousness". Nature Neuroscience 6 (2): 119–26. doi:10.1038/nn0203-119. PMID 12555104.
^ Andreas K. Engel, Pascal Fries, Peter Koenig, Michael Brecht, Wolf Singer (1999). "Temporal Binding, Binocular Rivalry, and Consciousness". Consciousness and Cognition 8 (2): 128–151. doi:10.1006/ccog.1999.038

ผลลัพธ์ (ไทย) 1:

คลื่นแกมมาคือ รูปแบบของการสั่นประสาทในมนุษย์มีความถี่ระหว่าง 25 และ 100 Hz, [1] ว่า 40 Hz เป็นปกติ [2]ตามทฤษฎีนิยม คลื่นแกมมาอาจเกี่ยวข้องในการสร้างความสามัคคีของการรับรู้สติ (ปัญหาผูก) [3] [4] [5] อย่างไรก็ตาม มีไม่มีข้อตกลงในทฤษฎี เป็นนักวิจัยแนะนำ:กิจกรรมคลื่นแกมมาจะเกี่ยวข้องกับการรับรู้ตามอัตวิสัยหรือไม่เป็นคำถามที่ยากมากซึ่งไม่สามารถตอบรับกับความแน่นอนในขณะ [6]ประวัติคลื่นแกมมาละเว้นเริ่มต้นก่อนการพัฒนา electroencephalography ดิจิทัลเป็นแอนะล็อก electroencephalography จำกัดการบันทึก และการวัดแบบที่มักน้อยกว่า 25 Hz. [1] รายงานแรกสุดนั้นคนในปี 1964 ใช้บันทึกกิจกรรมไฟฟ้าของ implanted ในคอร์เทกซ์ภาพของลิงตื่นหุงต [7]เชื่อมโยงกับความสามัคคีของสติประวัติศาสตร์ความคิดThe idea that distinct regions in the brain were being stimulated simultaneously was suggested by the finding in 1988[2] that two neurons oscillate synchronously (though they are not directly connected) when a single external object stimulates their respective receptive fields. Subsequent experiments by many others demonstrated this phenomenon in a wide range of visual cognition. In particular, Francis Crick and Christof Koch in 1990[8] argued that there is a significant relation between the binding problem and the problem of visual consciousness and, as a result, that synchronous 40 Hz oscillations may be causally implicated in visual awareness as well as in visual binding. Later the same authors expressed scepticism over the idea that 40 Hz oscillations are a sufficient condition for visual awareness.[9]A lead article by Andreas K. Engel et al. in the journal Consciousness and Cognition (1999) that argues for temporal synchrony as the basis for consciousness, defines the gamma wave hypothesis thus: [10]The hypothesis is that synchronization of neuronal discharges can serve for the integration of distributed neurons into cell assemblies and that this process may underlie the selection of perceptually and behaviorally relevant information.Role in attentive focusThe suggested mechanism is that gamma waves relate to neural consciousness via the mechanism for conscious attention:The proposed answer lies in a wave that, originating in the thalamus, sweeps the brain from front to back, 40 times per second, drawing different neuronal circuits into synch with the precept, and thereby bringing the precept into the attentional foreground. If the thalamus is damaged even a little bit, this wave stops, conscious awarenesses do not form, and the patient slips into profound coma.[4]Thus the claim is that when all these neuronal clusters oscillate together during these transient periods of synchronized firing, they help bring up memories and associations from the visual precept to other notions. This brings a distributed matrix of cognitive processes together to generate a coherent, concerted cognitive act, such as perception. This has led to theories that gamma waves are associated with solving the binding problem.[3]Gamma waves are observed as neural synchrony from visual cues in both conscious and subliminal stimuli.[11][12][13] [14] This research also sheds light on how neural synchrony may explain stochastic resonance in the nervous system.[15] Gamma Waves are also implicated during Rapid eye movement sleep and anesthesia, which involves visualizations.[6]Contemporary researchA 2009 study published in Nature successfully induced gamma waves in mice brains. Researchers performed this study using optogenetics (the method of combining genetic engineering with light to manipulate the activity of individual nerve cells). The protein channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), which sensitizes cells to light, was genetically engineered into these mice, specifically to be expressed in a target-group of interneurons. These fast-spiking (FS) interneurons, known for high electrical activity, were then activated with an optical fiber and laser—the second step in optogenetics. In this way, the cell activity of these interneurons was manipulated in the frequency range of 8–200 Hz. The study produced empirical evidence of gamma wave induction in the approximate interval of 25–100 Hz. The gamma waves were most apparent at a frequency of 40 Hz; this indicates that the gamma waves evoked by FS manipulation are a resonating brain circuit property. This is the first study in which it has been shown that a brain state can be induced through the activation of a specific group of cells.[16]Relation to meditationExperiments on Tibetan Buddhist monks have shown a correlation between transcendental mental states and gamma waves.[17][18] A suggested explanation is based on the fact that the gamma is intrinsically localized. Neuroscientist Sean O'Nuallain suggests that this very existence of synchronized gamma indicates that something akin to a singularity - or, to be more prosaic, a conscious experience - is occurring.[17] This work adduces experimental and simulated data to show that what meditation masters have in common is the ability to put the brain into a state in which it is maximally sensitive.As hinted above, gamma waves have been observed in Tibetan Buddhist monks. A 2004 study took eight long-term Tibetan Buddhist practitioners of meditation and, using electrodes, monitored the patterns of electrical activity produced by their brains as they meditated. The researchers compared the brain activity of the monks to a group of novice meditators (the study had these subjects meditate an hour a day for one week prior to empirical observation). In a normal meditative state, both groups were shown to have similar brain activity. However, when the monks were told to generate an objective feeling of compassion during meditation, their brain activity began to fire in a rhythmic, coherent manner, suggesting neuronal structures were firing in harmony. This was observed at a frequency of 25–40 Hz, the rhythm of gamma waves. These gamma-band oscillations in the monk’s brain signals were the largest seen in humans (apart from those in states such as seizures). Conversely, these gamma-band oscillations were scant in novice meditators. Though, a number of rhythmic signals did appear to strengthen in beginner meditators with further experience in the exercise, implying that the aptitude for one to produce gamma-band rhythm is trainable.[19]Such evidence and research in gamma-band oscillations may explain the heightened sense of consciousness, bliss, and intellectual acuity subsequent to meditation. Notably, meditation is known to have a number of health benefits: stress reduction, mood elevation, and increased life expectancy of the mind and its cognitive functions. The current Dalai Lama meditates for four hours each morning, and he says that it is hard work. He elaborates that if neuroscience can construct a way in which he can reap the psychological and biological rewards of meditation without going through the practice each morning, he would be apt to adopt the innovation.[20]Opposing evidenceMany neuroscientists are not convinced of the gamma wave argument. Arguments against it range from the possibility of mismeasurement – it has been suggested that EEG-measured gamma waves could be in many cases an artifact of electromyographic activity[21][22] – to relations to other neural function, such as minute eye movements.[23]However, proponents like O'Nuallain and Andreas Engel argue that gamma evidence persists even with careful signal separation.[17][24]Moreover, recent studies using magnetoencephalography (MEG), which does not suffer the potential artifacts associated with EEG, have identified gamma activity associated with sensory processing, mainly in the visual cortex.[25][26][27][28]Bearing this theory in mind, a number of questions remain unexplained regarding details of exactly how the temporal synchrony results in a conscious awareness or how a new percept "calls for"[4] the synchrony, etc.See alsoBrain wavesDelta wave – (0.1 – 3 Hz)Theta wave – (4 – 7 Hz)Alpha wave – (8 – 15 Hz)Mu wave – (7.5 – 12.5 Hz)SMR wave – (12.5 – 15.5 Hz)Beta wave – (16 – 31 Hz)Gamma wave – (32 – 100 Hz)References^ a b Hughes JR (July 2008). "Gamma, fast, and ultrafast waves of the brain: their relationships with epilepsy and behavior". Epilepsy Behav 13 (1): 25–31. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.01.011. PMID 18439878.^ a b Ian Gold (1999). "Does 40-Hz oscillation play a role in visual consciousness?". Consciousness and Cognition 8 (2): 186–195. doi:10.1006/ccog.1999.0399. PMID 10448001.^ a b Buzsaki, György (2006). "Cycle 9, The Gamma Buzz". Rhythms of the brain. Oxford.^ a b c Robert Pollack, The Missing Moment, 1999^ Singer, W.; Gray, C.M. (1995). "Visual feature integration and the temporal correlation hypothesis". Annu. Rev. Neurosci 18: 555–586. doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.003011.^ a b Vanderwolf CH (Feb 2000). "Are neocortical gamma waves related to consciousness?". Brain Res 855 (2): 217–24. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(99)02351-3. PMID 10677593.^ Hughes JR. (1964). Responses from the visual cortex of unanesthetized monkeys. pp. 99–153. In: Pfeiffer CC, Smythies JR, (Eds), International review of neurobiology vol. 7, Academic Press, New York OCLC 43986646^ Crick, F., & Koch, C. (1990b). Towards a neurobiological theory of consciousness. Seminars in the Neurosciences v.2, 263-275.
^ Crick, F., Koch, C. (2003). "Framework for consciousness". Nature Neuroscience 6 (2): 119–26. doi:10.1038/nn0203-119. PMID 12555104.
^ Andreas K. Engel, Pascal Fries, Peter Koenig, Michael Brecht, Wolf Singer (1999). "Temporal Binding, Binocular Rivalry, and Consciousness". Consciousness and Cognition 8 (2): 128–151. doi:10.1006/ccog.1999.038

ผลลัพธ์ (ไทย) 3:

คลื่นแกมม่าเป็นแบบสั่นประสาทในมนุษย์ที่มีความถี่ระหว่าง 25 และ 100 Hz , [ 1 ] แต่ 40 Hz เป็นปกติ [ 2 ]

ตามนิยมทฤษฎีคลื่นรังสีอาจจะติดร่างแหในการสร้างเอกภาพของจิตสำนึกการรับรู้ ( ปัญหาผูกพัน ) . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] 5 ] อย่างไรก็ตาม ไม่มีข้อตกลงในทฤษฎีเป็นนักวิจัยแนะนำ :
;หรือไม่ว่าคลื่นแกมมากิจกรรมที่เกี่ยวข้องกับการเป็นอัตนัยยากมากคำถามที่ไม่สามารถตอบได้แน่นอนในเวลาปัจจุบัน [ 6 ]

ประวัติ

แกมมาคลื่นถูกละเว้นการเริ่มต้นก่อนการพัฒนาของดิจิตอลเป็นอะนาล็อกไคลเอ็นต์ไคลเอ็นต์จำกัดการบันทึกและวัดจังหวะที่มักจะน้อยกว่า 25 เฮิร์ต[ 1 ] หนึ่งในรายงานแรกสุดในพวกเขาในปี 1964 ที่ใช้บันทึกของกิจกรรมไฟฟ้าของอิเล็กโทรดที่ฝังในสมองส่วนการมองเห็นของลิงตื่น [ 7 ]
เชื่อมโยงกับความสามัคคีของการหมดสติ


ประวัติศาสตร์ของความคิดความคิดที่แตกต่างในพื้นที่สมองถูกกระตุ้นพร้อมกันเป็นข้อเสนอแนะโดยการหาใน 1988 [ 2 ] 2 เซลล์ประสาทแดะ synchronously ( แม้ว่าพวกเขาจะไม่ได้เชื่อมต่อโดยตรง ) เมื่อวัตถุเดียวภายนอกกระตุ้นเขตอ่อนไหวของตน ภายหลังการทดลอง โดยคนอื่น ๆแสดงให้เห็นถึงปรากฏการณ์นี้ในช่วงกว้างของภาพและการรับรู้ โดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งฟรานซิส คริก และคริสตอฟ คอช ในปี ค.ศ. 1990 [ 8 ] ถกเถียงกันอยู่ว่ามีความสัมพันธ์อย่างมีนัยสำคัญระหว่างสภาพและปัญหา ของ สติ ภาพ และ ผล ว่า ซิงโคร 40 Hz การสั่นอาจจะติดร่างแหในการตามลำพัง ภาพ รวมทั้งภาพที่มีผลผูกพันต่อมาผู้เขียนเดียวกันแสดงความสงสัยผ่านความคิดที่ 40 Hz การสั่นเป็นเงื่อนไขที่เพียงพอสำหรับภาพการรับรู้ [ 9 ]

นำบทความโดย Andreas K . แองเจล et al . ในวารสาร สติ และปัญญา ( 1999 ) ที่ระบุสำหรับชั่วคราว synchrony เป็นพื้นฐานสำหรับสติกำหนดคลื่นแกมมา [ 10 ]
สมมติฐานดังนี้โดยมีสมมติฐานว่า การไหลและสามารถใช้สำหรับการรวมเซลล์ในเซลล์และการประกอบว่า กระบวนการนี้อาจจะรองรับการรับรู และพฤติกรรมที่เกี่ยวข้องข้อมูล บทบาทใน

สนใจใส่ใจแนะนำคือกลไกที่เกี่ยวข้องกับคลื่นรังสีจิตประสาทผ่านทางกลไกที่ใส่ใจสนใจ :
เสนอคำตอบอยู่ในคลื่นที่ เกิดขึ้นในทาลามัสกวาด , มองจากด้านหน้าไปด้านหลัง 40 ครั้งต่อวินาที การวาดวงจรที่แตกต่างกันและในซิงค์กับศีลและศีลจึงนำลงเบื้องหน้าใส่ใจ . ถ้าอาคาอินุเสียหายแม้แต่นิดเดียว คลื่นนี้หยุด awarenesses มีสติไม่ฟอร์ม และคนไข้ก็เข้าโคม่าลึกซึ้ง[ 4 ]

จึงเรียกร้องว่า เมื่อกลุ่มของเซลล์ประสาทเหล่านี้แกว่งไปมาด้วยกันตลอดระยะเวลาการชั่วคราวซึ่งจะช่วยนำขึ้นความทรงจำและสมาคมจากศีลภาพไปยังช่องอื่น ๆ นี้นำเมทริกซ์ของกระบวนการทางปัญญากระจายร่วมกันเพื่อสร้างความรับรู้ร่วมกันทำ เช่น การรับรู้