Initiatives to ensure quality in private higher education institutions
began in the early 90s after the collapse of the Soviet Union
(Macwilliams 2001). The expansion of private higher education
brought concerns about quality, including the need to distinguish
between ‘‘degree mills’’ and legitimate institutions. Protecting
consumers from fraud is not unique to transition countries; such
institutions operate elsewhere, including in the United States (Bartlett
& Smallwood 2004).