When exchange transactions between actors are evaluated, the consequences may be viewed in the following sequence: examining outputs from exchange; determining the actions of the actor in response to the outputs obtained; and evaluating the psychological outcomes of the consequences.
Outputs refer to the physical, social, or symbolic objects or events that are valued and accrue to the actors. An example of outputs resulting from a profitable exchange between a host community and tourists would be the accrual of income and economic benefits to the host. Actions refer to the behavior, or outward manifestations, in which the actors engage. The extension of hospitality, courtesy, and friendliness toward tourists, or opposition to newly proposed tourism development are actions that residents may exhibit as a result of favorable and unfavorable encounters with tourists and the industry, respectively. Outcomes refer to what the actors feel and are described as psychological states which result from being involved in an exchange relationship. Outcomes have been described by Bagozzi as experiences "conveyed symbolically through the objects exchanged, the functions performed by the exchange, or the meanings attributed to the exchange" (1979: 138). Outcomes resulting from these experiences in a profitable exchange may be feelings of financial security, contentment with the host's quality of life, and favorable attitudes toward the tourism industry generally. As such,
A host actor will perceive tourism positively when the consequences of exchange provide a reinforcing exchange experience (Proposition 7a).
A host actor will perceive tourism negatively when the consequences of exchange provide an unrewarding or unfavorable exchange experience (Proposition 7b).
CONCLUSIONS
The lack of explicit linkage to a theory is a major limitation in advancing understanding of residents' perceptions of tourism impacts. It is proposed that a social exchange paradigm offers a useful theoretical framework, which can account for both the positive and negative impacts of tourism as perceived by the host population. Social exchange theory is a logically and intuitively appealing one that may be used to explain why residents develop positive or negative perceptions of tourism impacts. It suggests that when exchange of resources (expressed in terms of power) between residents and tourism is high and balanced, or high for the host actor in an unbalanced relation, tourism impacts are viewed positively by residents. When exchange of resources is low in either the balanced or unbalanced exchange relation, the impacts are viewed negatively. The model provides a basis for explaining the process involved in social exchange and the propositions outlined in this paper provide a basis for testing the model.
It is acknowledged that support by previous tourism research for the propositions presented in this paper is lacking. While this may be a valid concern, it poses a "chicken-egg" relationship dilemma. The main purpose for developing the model (and its accompanying propositions) is to provide a framework for developing a research program on the subject. As noted earlier, one of the main problems identified with
existing research is an underdeveloped theoretical orientation.
When exchange transactions between actors are evaluated, the consequences may be viewed in the following sequence: examining outputs from exchange; determining the actions of the actor in response to the outputs obtained; and evaluating the psychological outcomes of the consequences.
Outputs refer to the physical, social, or symbolic objects or events that are valued and accrue to the actors. An example of outputs resulting from a profitable exchange between a host community and tourists would be the accrual of income and economic benefits to the host. Actions refer to the behavior, or outward manifestations, in which the actors engage. The extension of hospitality, courtesy, and friendliness toward tourists, or opposition to newly proposed tourism development are actions that residents may exhibit as a result of favorable and unfavorable encounters with tourists and the industry, respectively. Outcomes refer to what the actors feel and are described as psychological states which result from being involved in an exchange relationship. Outcomes have been described by Bagozzi as experiences "conveyed symbolically through the objects exchanged, the functions performed by the exchange, or the meanings attributed to the exchange" (1979: 138). Outcomes resulting from these experiences in a profitable exchange may be feelings of financial security, contentment with the host's quality of life, and favorable attitudes toward the tourism industry generally. As such,
A host actor will perceive tourism positively when the consequences of exchange provide a reinforcing exchange experience (Proposition 7a).
A host actor will perceive tourism negatively when the consequences of exchange provide an unrewarding or unfavorable exchange experience (Proposition 7b).
CONCLUSIONS
The lack of explicit linkage to a theory is a major limitation in advancing understanding of residents' perceptions of tourism impacts. It is proposed that a social exchange paradigm offers a useful theoretical framework, which can account for both the positive and negative impacts of tourism as perceived by the host population. Social exchange theory is a logically and intuitively appealing one that may be used to explain why residents develop positive or negative perceptions of tourism impacts. It suggests that when exchange of resources (expressed in terms of power) between residents and tourism is high and balanced, or high for the host actor in an unbalanced relation, tourism impacts are viewed positively by residents. When exchange of resources is low in either the balanced or unbalanced exchange relation, the impacts are viewed negatively. The model provides a basis for explaining the process involved in social exchange and the propositions outlined in this paper provide a basis for testing the model.
It is acknowledged that support by previous tourism research for the propositions presented in this paper is lacking. While this may be a valid concern, it poses a "chicken-egg" relationship dilemma. The main purpose for developing the model (and its accompanying propositions) is to provide a framework for developing a research program on the subject. As noted earlier, one of the main problems identified with
existing research is an underdeveloped theoretical orientation.
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