desires, and vidlls—were all constructed out of presentations. By controlling wbat was presented to cbildren's minds, educators could control tbe development of tbeir cbaracters. Instruction was a matter of deciding wbat presentations sbould be offered to students and bow best to tie tbese presentations togetber into apperceptive masses. Herbart's tbeory of instruction revolved around one central idea, apperception. According to Herbart, tbe mind was made up of different idea clusters. Ideas witbin a cluster shared logical relationsbips witb one anotber. Eacb cluster constituted a wbole or integrated system. Wben a new idea entered tbe mind, it was spoken of as being perceived. Tben, wben tbe new idea was related to otber ideas already in tbe mind, it became apperceived. Tbus apperception was tbe process of integrating new ideas into establisbed idea clusters. "Apperception or assimilation," Herbart asserted "takes place tbrougb tbe reproduction of previously acquired ideas and tbeir union witb tbe new element, tbe most energetic apperception, altbougb not necessarily tbe best, being affected by tbe ideas rising spontaneously."^" Wbat was to be gained by apperceiving new ideas? Wben an idea was apperceived, it acquired greater permanence in the mind. An idea that merely floated into the mind, and which was not apperceived, was likely to floatb ack out again. Apperception was what clinched an idea, fitting it into memory. Herbart's theory of knowledge is more than reminiscent of Hegel's epistemology. Both philosophers saw knowledge as a coherent whole where all the pieces dovetailed together. When all the small truths were fitted together, they formed one larger Truth. Seeing knowledge and truth as an integrated whole promoted memory and understanding.^'
Herbart divided tbe curriculum into two major divisions, matbematical and bistorical studies. Matbematical studies included matbematics and natural science. Historical subjects included foreign languages, bistory, and geograpby. A sixtb subject, composition, represented wbat Herbart called beterogeneous studies. Tbougb composition did not contribute directly to a moral end, it was a necessary and expected skill. Tbe study of matbematics and science promoted tbe many-sided interests inberent in tbe idea of perfection. Historical studies—foreign languages, history, and geograpby—were directed toward different etbical ends. While students normally hegan their foreign language studies with Latin, Herbart insisted that Greek should come first. The study of Latin and Greek customarily began witb a prolonged study of grammar. Herbart, after providing a sbort introduction to grammar, moved bis students quickly into literature. He started students on the reading of Homer's Odyssey after minimal preparation. Tbe purpose of tbis early exposure to literature was for moral reasons. Herbart believed tbe Odyssey could bave a more profound affect on tbe moral cbaracter of younger students tban on older students. History was also taugbt witb a moral aim in mind. Historicalcbaracters and events provided fertile ground for making moral judgments. Students could learn wbat it meant to be brave, loyal, and trustwortby. Finally, geograpby was treated as tbe capstone of bistorical studies. Geograpby was tbe great integrative discipline for tbe study of mankind. Wben rigbtly taugbt, geograpby offered tbe greatest variety of moral situations for students to encounter.^*