Many of New Zealand's native freshwater fish
species undertake obligatory migrations to and from
the sea in order to reproduce, utilising lowland
streams as migratory pathways. These streams drain
some of the most intensively used land in New
Zealand. Consequently, they often lack shade and
have high nutrient loads, which can result in
excessive plant growths and large daily oscillations
in temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen during
summer months (Wilcock et al. 1995). These
conditions may be lethal to fish, and could represent
barriers to juvenile recruitment up stream.
Data from 28 sites on lowland streams in the
Waikato region showed that during summer,
minimum dissolved oxygen concentrations were
commonly between 3 and 4 mg litre"1, generally as
a result of plant respiration and decomposition
(Wilcock et al. 1998). The ability offish to survive
in low oxygen environments depends upon the extent
of exposure, the level and constancy of dissolved
oxygen and other environmental conditions, as well
as on the species, its health, and life stage (Birtwell
1989).
Fish typically abstract oxygen from the water by
pumping it through the gill cavities using buccal and
opercular muscles. Once absorbed across the fine gill
membranes into the blood, oxygen is distributed to
the tissues. A reduction in external dissolved oxygen