pregnant women and women with young children in Taiwan, and
prospectively evaluate the outcomes of a TTM-based intervention.
Methods
Study design
This was a controlled study including pregnant women and women
with young children. All subjects were randomly assigned to two
groups based on alternating dates (odd days for one group, even
days for the other) of participants’ out-patient visits to their
respective hospitals: an intervention group receiving an educational
intervention and a comparison group receiving routine care without
any intervention.
Sample and setting
Eligible participants were pregnant women from the obstetrics/gynaecology
department and women with young children from the
paediatrics department of four hospitals in Taiwan. Inclusion
criteria were as follows: currently pregnant women or women with
children younger than age 3; absence of any clinical disease; at least
20 years old. Pregnant participants with a known complicated
pregnancy were excluded, as well as those who had a history of
smoking and those who were not ever exposed to passive smoking.
This study was approved by the Taipei Veterans General Hospital
institutional review board, and participants signed informed consent.
A total of 355 mothers agreed to participate, 177 were allocated to
the intervention group and 178 to the comparison group. Fortyeight
percent and 45% of participants were currently pregnant in
the intervention and comparison groups, respectively. The intervention
was conducted for 1 month. Baseline assessment and post-test
data were collected in both groups before and after intervention
completion. Of the original 355 women, 41 withdrew and
136 completed the questionnaire in the intervention group,
whereas 22 withdrew and 158 completed the questionnaire in the
comparison group. The causes of withdrawal included lost to phone
contact, inability to complete post-test and refusing twice to accept
phone counselling. Because data could not be collected from subjects
who withdrew during and after the intervention, collected and
complete data were analysed on the basis of ‘per protocol analysis’
rather than ‘intent to treat’ analysis, meaning that analysis was
restricted to that of participants who met the requirements of
eligibility, interventions and outcomes assessment.
A final sample of 294 women completing all assessments was used
for final analysis, including 65 pregnant women and 71 women with
children in the intervention group, and 70 pregnant women and
88 women with children in the comparison group.
Definition of TTM stages
All materials for the intervention applied in this study were designed
based on the TTM stages. The TTM stages of change include
precontemplation stage (not thinking about adopting preventive
behaviours); contemplation stage (thinking of taking preventive
behaviours in next 6 months); preparation stage (not taking
preventive behaviours currently but seriously thinking of taking preventive
behaviours in next month); action stage (performing
preventive behaviours for 6 months). To work with intervention strategies,
we modified the TTM by condensing the original five stages
of change into three stages based on previous studies.8,13 The
three categories of change include: 1) precontemplation, 2) contemplation/preparation
(C/PR) and 3) action/maintenance (A/M). TTM
theoretical constructs and interventional strategies/activities are
presented in a supplementary table (See supplementary table in
Appendix).
Ten processes of change are classified as experiential and
behavioural processes. Experiential processes involve consciousness
raising (increasing awareness), dramatic relief (emotional arousal),
environmental reevaluation (social reappraisal), social liberation
(environmental opportunities) and self-reevaluation (selfreappraisal).
Behavioural processes include stimulus control
(re-engineering), helping relationship (supporting), counter conditioning
(substituting), reinforcement management (rewarding) and
self-liberation (committing).3,8 The decisional balance construct
reflects the individual’s relative weighting of the pros and cons of
change. Self-efficacy construct represents an individual’s confidence
engaging in a target behaviour across a series of situations.3,8
Intervention programme overview and
application of TTM
The intervention programme applied TTM constructs by using stages
of change, decisional balance and self-efficacy related to women
protecting themselves and their children from passive smoking
exposure as the determinants of change. Knowledge has been
suggested to affect individuals’ perceptions and influence
behaviour,9 and was also included as a determinant of change. The
intervention focused on providing appropriate strategies based on
mothers’ motivation to change. In addition to inducing changes in
motivation and the determinants of change using stage-targeted
intervention, we also designed individually tailored interve
pregnant women and women with young children in Taiwan, andprospectively evaluate the outcomes of a TTM-based intervention.MethodsStudy designThis was a controlled study including pregnant women and womenwith young children. All subjects were randomly assigned to twogroups based on alternating dates (odd days for one group, evendays for the other) of participants’ out-patient visits to theirrespective hospitals: an intervention group receiving an educationalintervention and a comparison group receiving routine care withoutany intervention.Sample and settingEligible participants were pregnant women from the obstetrics/gynaecologydepartment and women with young children from thepaediatrics department of four hospitals in Taiwan. Inclusioncriteria were as follows: currently pregnant women or women withchildren younger than age 3; absence of any clinical disease; at least20 years old. Pregnant participants with a known complicatedpregnancy were excluded, as well as those who had a history ofsmoking and those who were not ever exposed to passive smoking.This study was approved by the Taipei Veterans General Hospitalinstitutional review board, and participants signed informed consent.A total of 355 mothers agreed to participate, 177 were allocated tothe intervention group and 178 to the comparison group. Fortyeightpercent and 45% of participants were currently pregnant inthe intervention and comparison groups, respectively. The interventionwas conducted for 1 month. Baseline assessment and post-testdata were collected in both groups before and after interventioncompletion. Of the original 355 women, 41 withdrew and136 completed the questionnaire in the intervention group,whereas 22 withdrew and 158 completed the questionnaire in thecomparison group. The causes of withdrawal included lost to phonecontact, inability to complete post-test and refusing twice to acceptphone counselling. Because data could not be collected from subjectswho withdrew during and after the intervention, collected andcomplete data were analysed on the basis of ‘per protocol analysis’rather than ‘intent to treat’ analysis, meaning that analysis wasrestricted to that of participants who met the requirements ofeligibility, interventions and outcomes assessment.A final sample of 294 women completing all assessments was usedfor final analysis, including 65 pregnant women and 71 women withchildren in the intervention group, and 70 pregnant women and88 women with children in the comparison group.Definition of TTM stagesAll materials for the intervention applied in this study were designedbased on the TTM stages. The TTM stages of change includeprecontemplation stage (not thinking about adopting preventivebehaviours); contemplation stage (thinking of taking preventivebehaviours in next 6 months); preparation stage (not takingpreventive behaviours currently but seriously thinking of taking preventivebehaviours in next month); action stage (performingpreventive behaviours for <6 months); and maintenance stage(performed for >6 months). To work with intervention strategies,we modified the TTM by condensing the original five stagesof change into three stages based on previous studies.8,13 Thethree categories of change include: 1) precontemplation, 2) contemplation/preparation(C/PR) and 3) action/maintenance (A/M). TTMtheoretical constructs and interventional strategies/activities arepresented in a supplementary table (See supplementary table inAppendix).Ten processes of change are classified as experiential andbehavioural processes. Experiential processes involve consciousnessraising (increasing awareness), dramatic relief (emotional arousal),environmental reevaluation (social reappraisal), social liberation(environmental opportunities) and self-reevaluation (selfreappraisal).Behavioural processes include stimulus control(re-engineering), helping relationship (supporting), counter conditioning(substituting), reinforcement management (rewarding) andself-liberation (committing).3,8 The decisional balance constructreflects the individual’s relative weighting of the pros and cons ofchange. Self-efficacy construct represents an individual’s confidenceengaging in a target behaviour across a series of situations.3,8Intervention programme overview andapplication of TTMThe intervention programme applied TTM constructs by using stagesof change, decisional balance and self-efficacy related to womenprotecting themselves and their children from passive smokingexposure as the determinants of change. Knowledge has beensuggested to affect individuals’ perceptions and influencebehaviour,9 and was also included as a determinant of change. Theintervention focused on providing appropriate strategies based onmothers’ motivation to change. In addition to inducing changes inmotivation and the determinants of change using stage-targetedintervention, we also designed individually tailored interve
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