A minor consideration was the direct costs of an equity issue, including underwriting fees and expenses, which would likely be between 2%-3% of the amount raised, in addition,
there might be some “ market impact” of a large issue , as the market typically greeted new shares by reducing the price of the firm’s outstanding equity (and thereby the price at which the new shares could be offered). .
Academic studies suggested that this response usually amounted to an additional 3%-4% reduction in the price of firm’s stock, although this discount varied across firms and over time.