SUMMARY: Confirmations are extensively used and are often perceived by practitioners
to be one of the most persuasive forms of audit evidence. Yet academic research
has found limitations that restrict confirmation effectiveness for many management assertions.
In addition, a number of problems with false and forged confirmations are
identified in Accounting and Auditing Enforcement Releases AAERs. The Public Company
Accounting Oversight Board PCAOB and the International Auditing and Assurance
Standards Board IAASB have put confirmation evidence on their respective
agendas. Academic research indicates that receivable confirmations can be effective
evidence for the existence assertion. Low response rates, as well as respondent errors
and directional bias in detecting errors, are key barriers to confirmation effectiveness.
Our review of AAERs identified failure to authenticate responses, collusion between
auditee management and customers, and concealed side agreements and special
terms as specific problem areas. We also identify a number of research questions for
future research.