In addition to self-efficacy, goal orientation has also been found to affect learning behaviour (Stevens & Gist, 1997). Different approaches can be distinguished in terms of the way people learn. If the goal orientation is aimed at obtaining good grades, then this is seen as performance orientation. When the goal orientation is aimed at becoming good or better at something, then this is seen as mastery orientation. Mastery and performance orientation are defined as functions of competence. The expectation of a learning outcome adds another classification of goal orientation, namely, an approach or avoidance orientation (Bernacki, Byrnes, & Cromley, 2012; Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Van Yperen, Elliot, & Anseel, 2009). When a positive, desirable outcome is expected, the learner will have the desire to achieve success (i.e., an approach orientation will be seen). When a negative, undesirable outcome is expected, the learner will have the desire to avoid failure (i.e., an avoidance orientation will be seen). Four types of goal orientation can thus be distinguished: mastery-avoidance, mastery-approach, performance-avoidance, and performance-approach (Elliot, 1999). DeShon and Gillespie (2005) provided a large overview of the concept goal orientation and the fundamental differences in conceptualizations of goal orientations over time. Their fundamental statement is that the study of goal orientations is an examination of choice behaviour in achievement situations. They state that depending on a specific achievement situation a person is able to switch goal orientations over the course of working on a task. To better understand this switching phenomenon, goal orientations need to be studied within specific achievement situations.