Ruch (1982) has pointed out that higher productivity can be achieved in a number of ways, including:
. increasing the level of output faster than that of the input (managed growth);
. producing more output with the same level of input (working smarter);
. producing more output with a reduced level of input (the ideal);
. maintaining the level of output while reducing the input (greater efficiency); and
. decreasing the level of output, but decreasing the level of input more (managed decline).