A mathematical model is used to calculate the output power of photovoltaic (PV) panels in three cases; tracking, no tracking, and miss tracking the sun, as sketched in Fig. 1. The panel is placed perpendicular to the solar irradiance during tracking the sun, parallel to the solar irradiance during miss tracking the sun, and at a fixed position during the no tracking case, as can be seen in Fig. 1. The model comprises a set of equations that PI-103 Hydrochloride calculate the output power from a photovoltaic (PV) panel in any of the above stated conditions. The analysis starts by calculating the module temperature Tm using the empirical model developed by Garcia and Balenzatgui [15] as follows,equation(1)Tm=Tamb+(NOCT-20)E/800.Tm=Tamb+(NOCT-20)E/800.where Tamb is the ambient temperature, NOCT is the nominal operating cell temperature of the PV module, and E is the solar irradiance. The module temperature is based on the ambient conditions, i.e. solar irradiance, E, ambient temperature, Tamb, and the nominal operating cell temperature, NOCT. The NOCT is a constant value given by the manufacturer of the PV panel, and heterozygous is 45 °C [16] for the panels used in the performed experiments. The solar irradiance and the ambient temperature are input variables that vary with time and location. The power output, P, from the PV panel depends on the module temperature and it is calculated based on the model developed by Skoplaki and Palyvos [17] as follows:equation(2)P=EηTrefA(1−βref(Tm−25)).P=EηTrefA(1−βref(Tm−25)).