public policies to improve health. Local policies to promote increased physical activity are designed to create more walkable, bikeable, and transit- accessible neighborhoods and to encourage use of recreation centers and parks. Land-use protec- tion policies protect green space for community gardens in some metropolitan areas (RWJF, 2014). The Department of Transportation’s Transportation Alternatives program provides grant support to states and communities to fund walking and bik- ing projects. Other states and communities have adopted policies that ensure sidewalks and bike lanes are incorporated into road design. To enable local interventions, some states have enacted leg- islation to support joint-use agreements that allow community members to use school athletic facili- ties and playgrounds outside of school hours in an effort to provide a safe space for exercise (RWJF, 2014).
State and local laws that require schools to pro- vide a specified number of minutes of activity per day, such as recess, physical education classes, or time integrated into general classroom activi- ties, promote increased activity (RWJF, 2014). As an example, in January 2007, the New York City health code was amended to require 60 minutes of physical activity daily and limited video viewing in group day care centers with health department permits; this intervention is thought to contribute to the area’s declining childhood obesity rate (Farley & Dowell, 2014).
Addressing Food Insecurity
Food insecurity, the uncertain availability of nu- tritionally adequate, safe food affected approxi- mately 14.5% of American households in 2012. Of these, 6% experienced the most severe cate- gory, food insecurity with hunger. Food insecurity with hunger occurs when meals are skipped or reduced in size due to lack of resources to pur- chase adequate food (Coleman-Jensen, Nord, & Singh, 2013). In developed countries, food insecu- rity is linked to obesity, especially among women (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2013). Obesity is more prevalent among women who are food insecure with hunger, and this has a greater effect on Black and Hispanic women (Adams, Grummer-Strawn, & Chavez, 2003). Among low-income populations, food insecurity is associated with obesity-related cardiovascular risk factors (Seligman, Laraiac, & Kushel, 2010).
Policy-driven interventions have shown promise in alleviating food insecurity and promoting healthier
weights. The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly Food Stamps, is the largest federal nutrition program and provided approximately 47.6 million low-income individu- als with $133 monthly benefits during fiscal year 2013 (RWJF, 2014). Although some analyses sug- gest that SNAP may contribute to obesity among low-income women, researchers did not control for food insecurity (Sirotin, Hoover, Shi, Anastos, & Weiser, 2014).
Dinour and colleagues (2007) suggested a signifi- cant relationship between food insecurity and obe- sity among women who use Food Stamps. Several plausible explanations exist as to why this food insecurity/obesity paradox occurs in women and not men. First, mothers with small children may limit their food intake in favor of their children to protect them from hunger. Second, consumption of fruits and vegetables decreases as food inse- curity increases. Third, food payment resources maybe maximized through purchase of low-cost, calorie-dense foods; results in greater caloric con- sumption of less nutritious foods. Finally, evidence suggests that Food Stamp allotments are often de- pleted before the end of the month, which results in episodic food insecurity and overconsumption of calorie-dense foods when resources are available (Dinour, Bergen, & Yeh, 2007). Continuous SNAP enrollment for more than 6 months and benefits of at least $150 per month are associated with lower BMIs among participants, which suggests a pos- itive correlation between adequate food supply and healthier weight (Dinour et al., 2007; Webb, Schiff, Currivan, & Villamor, 2008).
The Agriculture Act of 2014, or Farm Bill, enacted as Public Law 113–79 includes several provisions that target improved access to nutritious foods by SNAP beneficiaries. The Farm Bill requires food retailers to include at least seven items in four basic food categories (e.g., fruits and vegetables, grains, dairy, and meat). Food retailers must also carry perishable items in at least three categories. The SNAP beneficiaries are also permitted to use SNAP benefits to pay in advance for participation in Community Supported Agriculture Shares whereby consumers receive a weekly share of a farmers produce (RWJF, 2014). Even with these policy changes, many low-income Americans live in “food deserts,” areas where access to fresh, nutritious, affordable food is limited (CDC, 2013). Tax incentives and grants authorized by the Farm Bill are available to encourage food retailers to operate in underserved communities to improve access to more nutritious food