Labor-intensive industry (high-touch industry)
High levels of labor turnover
Unskilled and semiskilled nature of most jobs
Labor and skill shortages experienced in the industry
Existence of dual labor markets with core and peripheral workforce
High proportion of seasonal, part-time, and on-call workforce
Low levels of employee productivity
Weak internal labor markets
High proportion of nonnationals (ethnic minorities, immigrants), students, and
illegal labor in the industry
High proportion of employees with low-level education and skills
High proportion of younger employees
Higher percentage of employees with a second job
High proportion of self-employment
Very heterogeneous labor market
Gendered nature of employment (high proportion of female employees who are
generally in the lower levels of the occupational structure in the industry)
Low status of employment (poor image of employment in the industry)
Most employment in small and medium-sized organizations
Low level of unionization
The transferability of the skills of employees within tourism and other sectors of
the economy
Employment of marginal and disadvantaged labor (a high proportion of child,
disadvantaged, migrant workers, and “misfits”)
Poor conditions of employment and human resource management practices
(unprofessional employee recruitment and selection; limited orientation and
training; limited opportunity for career development and promotion; low pay
and benefits; absence of overtime payments; low job security; absence of
employee empowerment and participation; “hierarchical,” “autocratic,” and
harsh styles of supervisors and management; routine and monotonous jobs;
harassment and bullying; low job security and stability; limited career
management and prospects; long, irregular, and unsocial hours of work; familyunfriendly
work shifts; no or unprofessional employee performance appraisal;
poor physical work conditions for employees use; demanding managers and
supervisors; poor coworker attitudes; night and weekend schedules; heavy
workload and stress; high rates of work-related injuries, work-related illness,
and violence; labor shortages; lack of time for family; and low quality of life)