These increases and decreases are based on a standard tariff defined by the insurer, depending on which the
premium is multiplied by a coefficient. The basic coefficient is 1 and it corresponds to the reference premium of the
insurance company. If the bonus-malus coefficient is lower to this value, a bonus is applied, and if it is higher, a
malus is considered. More specifically, the French bonus-malus system involves a malus of 25% for a claim
declared and a bonus of 5% for the non-declaration of any claims in the reference period, usually a year. In this way,
the system aims the encouragement of prudent insured drivers and the discouragement of those who, for various
reasons, register sever losses. In the studied portfolio, the calculations corresponding to the bonus-malus coefficient
are already generated, registering negative values, respectively positive, which indicates a decrease, respectively an
increase, of the insurance premium.