The Westphalian System
The modern sovereign state system is often called the Westphalian system, after the Treaty of Westphalia, signed in 1648. The Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years War, is seen as enshrining the status of sovereign states, even though the process of building this sovereign state system took place gradually over a period of time. The Thirty Years War was a result of two conflicts. First, there was a simple battle for political control over Europe. Several states retained the goal of recreating a single empire in Europe and sought to become the “next Rome” by defeating their rivals. Second, the conflict over religion that sprang from the Protestant Reformation caused rulers of one faith to seek to conquer rulers of other faiths in order to convert their subjects.
Like many wars, the Thirty Years War lasted much longer and was much more devastating than anyone expected. In the central part of Europe, where Germany is today, as much as one third of the population died as a result of the war, a death rate higher than during World War I or World War II. Exhausted, the European powers gathered in Westphalia (in what is today northwestern Germany) in 1648 to make peace. The result was the Treaty of Westphalia.
The treaty established principles that defined the system from then until now. First, the treaty recognized the existence of sovereign states. Second, it defined the rights of sovereign states. The powers of Europe accepted that the dream of renewing the Roman Empire was impossible and that pursuing that goal was certain to lead to war. This meant acknowledging Europe as a system of multiple states. How would these states relate to one another? The principle of sovereignty answers this question. Sovereignty meant that each state had complete authority over its territory.
Sovereignty had both internal and external dimensions. Internally, it meant that no one within a state had the right to challenge the ruler’s power. Any challenges that occurred were regarded as illegitimate, or unjust. This principle gave kings power over lesser nobles. The external dimension of sovereignty was that no one outside a territory had the right to say what should go on within that territory. This principle, often known as the “principle of noninterference in the internal affairs of other states,” was especially important in religious terms. In particular, the Treaty of Westphalia recognized the power of rulers to determine the religion of the people in their territory.
In territorial terms as well as in religious terms, the treaty acknowledged the reality of pluralism. In religious terms, pluralism meant acceptance of more than one religion, rather than an attempt to determine and enforce a single ”true” religion. In political terms, pluralism meant accepting that there would be many states, rather than a single empire covering all of Europe. Europe was not going to be a single empire based on a single religion. Instead, Europe would be divided territorially, with individual leaders determining the religions of their own states but tolerating other monarchs rights to impose different religions in their states. This was not exactly a recipe for religious tolerance; within individual states, persecution of minorities continued to be widespread and brutal.