In terms of cultural dimensions, Japan has a borderline PDI
with a score of 54 and the lowest score among the 15 Asian
countries reviewed which indicates that it is a borderline
hierarchical society where hierarchy may be less important
than meritocracy (Hofstede, 2014). Finally, SEA developments
in Japan indicate the absence of SEA legislation and application
in policy planning but the presence of public participation
provisions and its application. Consequently, Japan’s borderline
PDI may explain the paradox in the lack of a SEA
legislation but nonetheless the practical and vigorous implementation
of public participation in other forms such as the
public involvement system