to choose from, and as consequence a service is designed to
please in order to attract and keep the customers.
This stimulation of active participation distinguishes Web
2.0 based learning from traditionalWeb 1.0" learning, which
is exemplied in traditional learning management systems,
where users read Web pages and solve exercises but cannot
contribute and social interactions are restricted to forums.
Together with the social dimension captured by the harnessing of the power of the crowds", these two principles
are the most visible ones and as such the most analyzed
and stressed by pedagogical research: Downes stresses the
constructivist nature of these principles and contrasts the
delivered learning of learning management systems with the
learner-centered activities triggered by Web 2.0 applications:
he Web was shifting from being a medium, in which information was transmitted and consumed, into being a platform, in which content was created, shared, remixed, repurposed, and passed along" [19].
However, this raises the question how the learner is supported in his usage of these tools and resources. Studies
show that students rarely develop explicit learning strategies on their own. According to [35], disorientation and cognitive overload are the principal obstacles of self-regulated
learning in technology-enhanced learning. This and similar
studies [29] provide evidence that students must learn to
self-regulate their learning process since most of them do
not posses this skill.
While in traditional Web-based technology-enhanced learning existing research shows how to provide pedagogically
supported access to resources and learning supporting tools
within a server-based learning environment [38], only little
research has investigated on using such techniques for Web
2.0 based learning (e. g., [36] for personalization of mashups
in the domain of tourism).
2.2 Harnessing the Power of the Crowd
Web 2.0 services are characterized by the fact that their
value increases the more people are using it. A traditional
static Web site does not improve" when visited by large
amounts of surfers since it presents its content the same,
static way. In contrast, Web 2.0 sites use information provided by the visitors explicitly (user contributions build up
the site or part of it) or implicitly (user activities on the site
are used for adapting its content or presentation).
The explicit and implicit harnessing of the power of the
crowd are best exemplied by Wikipedia and Amazon. In
the online encyclopedia Wikipedia, the user explicitly contribute to the encyclopedia by adding and editing articles.
In the online shop Amazon, collaborative ltering based on
the shopping behavior is used for making suggestions to the
customers. Each page describing an article contains suggestions of related products (Customers who bought this item
also bought . . . ").
What are the implications of the principle of harnessing
collective intelligence for education? First of all, in Web
2.0 services potentially large amounts of other users will exists and active contribution is encouraged (see the previous
principle). Each user is therefore immediately a member of
a community with a low barrier to participate.
Constructivism sees learning as activity that takes place in
a social context [41]. Thus generally speaking, these innate
properties of Web 2.0 services are benecial for learning. An
obvious example is learning of a foreign language. In Section 3.1 we describe how we used micro-blogging, i. e., SMSlike news exchange between users, for learning English as a
second language. The large community of pre-existing users
of this service allowed the learners to observe communication of native speakers and to practice by communicating
with other users who were no member of the class.
Even in domains other than language learning, the value
of communicating is important. For instance, in mathematics learning being able to verbally explain results and problem solving steps is increasingly emphasized. Competencybased learning as, among others, put forward by Niss [27]
regards communication of results as similar important as
formal proving skills.
On the other hand, having the learners engaged in an unrestricted community can be distracting. During our microblogging usage, learners suddenly started to post German
and Japanese messages, which in itself is no bad thing but
distracted from the goal of practicing English. Additionally,
unmoderated contributions can be problematic if oending
content is posted. However most Web 2.0 services have builtin quality control mechanisms.
Collective contribution of content can be problematic in
case assumptions are made regarding the data provided by
the users. The second case study described in this article uses social bookmarking services for easy authoring of
learning objects. There, bookmarks are stored on a Web 2.0
service
2
annotated with tags that provide additional information about the bookmarked resources. In the case study,
the tags were predened and carried specic semantics that
were exploited by a learning management system to suggest
new learning resources. However, such a xed semantic can
be enforced only in closed communities. Otherwise, problems might arise if by chance other users employ the same
tags but with a dierent semantic. While most Web 2.0 services oer a possibility to dene closed communities,
3
this
of course undermines the benets of an open community.
Some research was performed on harnessing the collective
intelligence for e-learning applications. For instance, [1, 8,
42] investigate the usage of tags for ontology generation and
authoring support.
2.3 Diverse Data on an Epic Scale
In Web 2.0, data is often as important as function. Take
del.icio.us as an example: its functionality is voluntarily limited to the basic function of bookmarking with tags, however, the value of del.icio.us emerges from the massive amount
of annotated resources. Thus Web 2.0 services employ different measures for increasing user contributions and participations, for instance by building trust (e. g., oering users
to leave with an export of their data), by explicit licenses
(often open licenses such as Creative Commons), and paradoxically, by making content accessible through RSS syndication and APIs. Behind the user-provided data of Web
2.0 lies the Semantic Web [10] with its vision to make the
data currently hidden in databases available for usage by
machines.
As a result, Web 2.0 enables access to data at an unprecedented scale, such as pictures (e. g., Flickr)
4
), bookmarks,
mapping data (e. g., Google Maps), but also indexed data,
2
http://del.icio.us
3
See, e. g., http://www.corank.com/ as an communitybased alternative to del.icio.us.
4
http://www.flickr.com
hal-00588757, version 1 - 10 May 2011
such as the Google search index. Some of this data was
available in the Web 1.0, however not as well-annotated and
centralized.
This content can be exploited for learning in various ways.
First, learners (and teachers) can use existing resources during their learning process as information sources (e. g., Wikipedia articles as starting points to learn about concepts).
Furthermore, active knowledge construction is supported:
learners can use the data as building blocks for creating new
content (mixing or mash-up of content).
Most of this content is not designed for instruction, but is
real world data, uttered by real people in real contexts. As
such, it is better suited for constructivist approaches than for
Instructional Design with its emphasis on very specically
designed content elements that try to elicit specic instructional outcomes [26]. This is not to say that constructivism
does not value carefully authored content. However, the
content takes a less prominent role.
The abundance of available data has also advantages for
the e-learning researcher. For instance, it is now easier than
ever to build tools that exploit the data to enrich the learning experiences. A vocabulary trainer could automatically
enrich the words to be learned by retrieving pictures from
Flickr or videos from YouTube.
The main problems consist of license problems, plagiarism
and disappearing data. Often, remixed content is based on
copy-protected material since especially young users are not
aware of potential restrictions. Closely related is the problem of plagiarism. While reusing previous work is not a bad
thing in itself, pretending to be the original author of a work
certainly is, and copy-and-pasting related work without citation is more and more wide-spread [34]. The problem of no
longer available data is as old as the Web, but is potentially
order of magnitudes larger: whereas previously referenced
data consisted of a single document (the link target), now
an API change (or the closing of a service) can make the
complete data of a Web 2.0 service unavailable. However,
such actions will almost certainly face massive opposition
from the users, and the fear of loss of users will (hopefully)
prevent such actions.
2.4 Architecture of Assembly
Similar to traditional Web services, the Web 2.0 makes
data and functionality accessible. Users can access Web
2.0 services by browsing the Web sites but also through
APIs. Typically, APIs allow to add, change, and retrieve
data. Content is disseminated by RSS/Atom feeds that allows users to pull the data without ever visiting the site itself. Most content created in the Web 2.0 is micro-content:
small, self-contained units, such as blog entries, images and
other multimedia content well suited for remixing [18]. This
micro-content can be combined with other data and services,
e. g., tags of Flickr photos can be used to show the location in
Google Maps. In dierence to traditional Web-services, the
Web 2.0 approach is characterized by pragmatic solutions
and lightweight formats.
Additionally, existing Web 2.0 services often disseminate
their functionality by plug-in modular compone
to choose from, and as consequence a service is designed to
please in order to attract and keep the customers.
This stimulation of active participation distinguishes Web
2.0 based learning from traditionalWeb 1.0" learning, which
is exemplied in traditional learning management systems,
where users read Web pages and solve exercises but cannot
contribute and social interactions are restricted to forums.
Together with the social dimension captured by the harnessing of the power of the crowds", these two principles
are the most visible ones and as such the most analyzed
and stressed by pedagogical research: Downes stresses the
constructivist nature of these principles and contrasts the
delivered learning of learning management systems with the
learner-centered activities triggered by Web 2.0 applications:
he Web was shifting from being a medium, in which information was transmitted and consumed, into being a platform, in which content was created, shared, remixed, repurposed, and passed along" [19].
However, this raises the question how the learner is supported in his usage of these tools and resources. Studies
show that students rarely develop explicit learning strategies on their own. According to [35], disorientation and cognitive overload are the principal obstacles of self-regulated
learning in technology-enhanced learning. This and similar
studies [29] provide evidence that students must learn to
self-regulate their learning process since most of them do
not posses this skill.
While in traditional Web-based technology-enhanced learning existing research shows how to provide pedagogically
supported access to resources and learning supporting tools
within a server-based learning environment [38], only little
research has investigated on using such techniques for Web
2.0 based learning (e. g., [36] for personalization of mashups
in the domain of tourism).
2.2 Harnessing the Power of the Crowd
Web 2.0 services are characterized by the fact that their
value increases the more people are using it. A traditional
static Web site does not improve" when visited by large
amounts of surfers since it presents its content the same,
static way. In contrast, Web 2.0 sites use information provided by the visitors explicitly (user contributions build up
the site or part of it) or implicitly (user activities on the site
are used for adapting its content or presentation).
The explicit and implicit harnessing of the power of the
crowd are best exemplied by Wikipedia and Amazon. In
the online encyclopedia Wikipedia, the user explicitly contribute to the encyclopedia by adding and editing articles.
In the online shop Amazon, collaborative ltering based on
the shopping behavior is used for making suggestions to the
customers. Each page describing an article contains suggestions of related products (Customers who bought this item
also bought . . . ").
What are the implications of the principle of harnessing
collective intelligence for education? First of all, in Web
2.0 services potentially large amounts of other users will exists and active contribution is encouraged (see the previous
principle). Each user is therefore immediately a member of
a community with a low barrier to participate.
Constructivism sees learning as activity that takes place in
a social context [41]. Thus generally speaking, these innate
properties of Web 2.0 services are benecial for learning. An
obvious example is learning of a foreign language. In Section 3.1 we describe how we used micro-blogging, i. e., SMSlike news exchange between users, for learning English as a
second language. The large community of pre-existing users
of this service allowed the learners to observe communication of native speakers and to practice by communicating
with other users who were no member of the class.
Even in domains other than language learning, the value
of communicating is important. For instance, in mathematics learning being able to verbally explain results and problem solving steps is increasingly emphasized. Competencybased learning as, among others, put forward by Niss [27]
regards communication of results as similar important as
formal proving skills.
On the other hand, having the learners engaged in an unrestricted community can be distracting. During our microblogging usage, learners suddenly started to post German
and Japanese messages, which in itself is no bad thing but
distracted from the goal of practicing English. Additionally,
unmoderated contributions can be problematic if oending
content is posted. However most Web 2.0 services have builtin quality control mechanisms.
Collective contribution of content can be problematic in
case assumptions are made regarding the data provided by
the users. The second case study described in this article uses social bookmarking services for easy authoring of
learning objects. There, bookmarks are stored on a Web 2.0
service
2
annotated with tags that provide additional information about the bookmarked resources. In the case study,
the tags were predened and carried specic semantics that
were exploited by a learning management system to suggest
new learning resources. However, such a xed semantic can
be enforced only in closed communities. Otherwise, problems might arise if by chance other users employ the same
tags but with a dierent semantic. While most Web 2.0 services oer a possibility to dene closed communities,
3
this
of course undermines the benets of an open community.
Some research was performed on harnessing the collective
intelligence for e-learning applications. For instance, [1, 8,
42] investigate the usage of tags for ontology generation and
authoring support.
2.3 Diverse Data on an Epic Scale
In Web 2.0, data is often as important as function. Take
del.icio.us as an example: its functionality is voluntarily limited to the basic function of bookmarking with tags, however, the value of del.icio.us emerges from the massive amount
of annotated resources. Thus Web 2.0 services employ different measures for increasing user contributions and participations, for instance by building trust (e. g., oering users
to leave with an export of their data), by explicit licenses
(often open licenses such as Creative Commons), and paradoxically, by making content accessible through RSS syndication and APIs. Behind the user-provided data of Web
2.0 lies the Semantic Web [10] with its vision to make the
data currently hidden in databases available for usage by
machines.
As a result, Web 2.0 enables access to data at an unprecedented scale, such as pictures (e. g., Flickr)
4
), bookmarks,
mapping data (e. g., Google Maps), but also indexed data,
2
http://del.icio.us
3
See, e. g., http://www.corank.com/ as an communitybased alternative to del.icio.us.
4
http://www.flickr.com
hal-00588757, version 1 - 10 May 2011
such as the Google search index. Some of this data was
available in the Web 1.0, however not as well-annotated and
centralized.
This content can be exploited for learning in various ways.
First, learners (and teachers) can use existing resources during their learning process as information sources (e. g., Wikipedia articles as starting points to learn about concepts).
Furthermore, active knowledge construction is supported:
learners can use the data as building blocks for creating new
content (mixing or mash-up of content).
Most of this content is not designed for instruction, but is
real world data, uttered by real people in real contexts. As
such, it is better suited for constructivist approaches than for
Instructional Design with its emphasis on very specically
designed content elements that try to elicit specic instructional outcomes [26]. This is not to say that constructivism
does not value carefully authored content. However, the
content takes a less prominent role.
The abundance of available data has also advantages for
the e-learning researcher. For instance, it is now easier than
ever to build tools that exploit the data to enrich the learning experiences. A vocabulary trainer could automatically
enrich the words to be learned by retrieving pictures from
Flickr or videos from YouTube.
The main problems consist of license problems, plagiarism
and disappearing data. Often, remixed content is based on
copy-protected material since especially young users are not
aware of potential restrictions. Closely related is the problem of plagiarism. While reusing previous work is not a bad
thing in itself, pretending to be the original author of a work
certainly is, and copy-and-pasting related work without citation is more and more wide-spread [34]. The problem of no
longer available data is as old as the Web, but is potentially
order of magnitudes larger: whereas previously referenced
data consisted of a single document (the link target), now
an API change (or the closing of a service) can make the
complete data of a Web 2.0 service unavailable. However,
such actions will almost certainly face massive opposition
from the users, and the fear of loss of users will (hopefully)
prevent such actions.
2.4 Architecture of Assembly
Similar to traditional Web services, the Web 2.0 makes
data and functionality accessible. Users can access Web
2.0 services by browsing the Web sites but also through
APIs. Typically, APIs allow to add, change, and retrieve
data. Content is disseminated by RSS/Atom feeds that allows users to pull the data without ever visiting the site itself. Most content created in the Web 2.0 is micro-content:
small, self-contained units, such as blog entries, images and
other multimedia content well suited for remixing [18]. This
micro-content can be combined with other data and services,
e. g., tags of Flickr photos can be used to show the location in
Google Maps. In dierence to traditional Web-services, the
Web 2.0 approach is characterized by pragmatic solutions
and lightweight formats.
Additionally, existing Web 2.0 services often disseminate
their functionality by plug-in modular compone
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