In one set of analysis we examined these questions from the
point of view of the household. We found that the more years of
schooling that the head of the household had, the more likely
the responsibilities for participation would be held by a woman.
Education may help build skills and confidence. It can also
influence attitudes towards gender roles and increase acceptance
of women’s ability to represent household interests even
in the public sphere (Desposato and Norrander, 2009). We also
found that households in communities which excluded some
members from participation by the use of fees or in-kind time
donations were more likely to have the responsibility to attend
meetings given to men. Thus, such restrictions appear to
disproportionally benefit men at the expense of women. Entry
barriers to participation in collective enterprises, especially of
the poorest, have been observed in varied natural resource
management settings (Adhikari et al., 2004; Adhikari and
Lovett, 2006).