Vaginal cytology examination was performed daily during the 9-week study to monitor the estrous cycle of each rat. All rats were fed with regular food chew throughout the study, except rats in groups O and G who received oligosaccharide and glucose for 3 weeks prior the end of the 9th week, respectively. We have previously identified that adult female rats developed EAMD after 6 weeks of exercise with incremental load with delayed the onset of estrus phase, much longer anestrous time, and irregular menstrual cycling (data not published). All rats were sacrificed at the end of the 9 weeks of exercise with 12 h fast.