The question was: How do you get goal commitment? Our initial belief was: through participation. Participation in decision making (pdm) was a popular topic of study following World War II. Locke (1968) predicted that participation would enhance goal commitment. We did not pursue this matter for some time; then, starting in the 1970s, there was chaos in the literature on this topic. The reason was largely political (Wagner and Gooding, 1987). For many scholars participation was viewed not only as a potentially useful managerial technique, but as a ‘‘moral imperative.’’ Because it was considered a ‘‘democratic’’ practice and an antidote to fascism, the results simply had to be supportive of the former ideology.