It turned out that the main cause of the differences in results was how goals were set in the assigned and pdm conditions. Latham gave a rationale for the assigned goal (e.g., Weyerhaeuser needs ideas on ways to increase log exports to Asia), the goals were described as attainable, and the assignments were given in a supportive manner. In Erez’s studies, the goals were assigned tersely (e.g., ‘‘do this’’) with no rationale and no implication that they could be attained. Also, only Erez’s pdm subjects were given efficacy enhancing instructions. When all these factors were controlled, pdm had no advantage over assigned goals.