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traditionally held collectively-was distributed as the private property of individual families (Tyler, 1973). In the process, some whites managed to grab still more land for themselves.
Not until 1924 were Native Americans entitled to U.S. citizenship. Since then, the government has encouraged their migration from reservations Some have adopted mainstream cultural patterns and married non-Native Americans. Many large cities now have sizable Native-American populations. However, median family income for Native Americans was far below average in the United
50 States in 1980, and Native Americans were much less likely to earn a college degree (7.7 percent) than Americans as a whole (17.1 percent).
From in-depth interviews with Native Americans in a western city, Joan Albon (1971) concluded that many were disadvantaged by little education, few marketable skills, less than perfect English, and dark skin that provokes
55 prejudice and discrimination. Additionally, she noted, Native Americans often lacked the pointed individualism and driving competitiveness that contribute to success in the United States. This passivity stemmed from both traditional values and long dependence on government assistance.
Like other racial and ethnic minorities in the United States, Native 60 Americans have recently reasserted pride in their cultural heritage. As the 1990s began, Native American organizations were reporting a surge of new
membership applications from people who had long ignored their heritage (Johnson, 1991). These organizations not only promote the self-esteem of Native Americans, they also pursue greater rights and opportunities for their
65 members. In lawsuits against the federal government, they have pressed for