These introductory discussions about the origin and nature of human rights pose significant challenges to their operation as universal standards of behaviour. Fundamentally diverging foundations for human rights may be given, that ultimately must rely upon either divine revelation, human reason extrapolating from nature, or deliberate human invention and agreement. Even if a satisfactory basis for human rights can be constructed, further fundamental challenges emerge to both the `human' and `rights' dimensions of human rights. It is not self-evident what it is about humans that generates the moral entitlement to certain benefits, neither is the status clear of those humans who do not share these qualities. A particular problem is posed by the manner in which these benefits are asserted to be `rights', since this concept can operate in practical circumstances as a liberty, power, immunity, or claim-right. The locus of any corresponding duty for a claim-right is no less problematic. Consequently human rights must be examined more closely, because they are at once so important and yet so vulnerable to probing questions about their origin, foundation, substance, and operation.
Canadians, among others, may readily embrace the rhetoric of human rights. But we do need to ask whether these human rights are really civil rights, in the sense of belonging to a particular conception of society. By studying the theoretical under-pinning of human rights, as well as their operation in the context of specific practical rights issues, we may come to a fuller appreciation of the extent to which human rights depend upon deliberate (although often obscured) policy choices.
The earliest direct precursor to human rights might be found in the notions of `natural right' developed by classical Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle, but this concept was more fully developed by Thomas Aquinas in his Summa Theologica. For several centuries Aquinas' conception held sway: there were goods or behaviours that were naturally right (or wrong) because God ordained it so. What was naturally right could be ascertained by humans by `right reason' - thinking properly. Hugo Grotius further expanded on this notion in De jure belli et paci, where he propounded the immutability of what is naturally right and wrong:
These introductory discussions about the origin and nature of human rights pose significant challenges to their operation as universal standards of behaviour. Fundamentally diverging foundations for human rights may be given, that ultimately must rely upon either divine revelation, human reason extrapolating from nature, or deliberate human invention and agreement. Even if a satisfactory basis for human rights can be constructed, further fundamental challenges emerge to both the `human' and `rights' dimensions of human rights. It is not self-evident what it is about humans that generates the moral entitlement to certain benefits, neither is the status clear of those humans who do not share these qualities. A particular problem is posed by the manner in which these benefits are asserted to be `rights', since this concept can operate in practical circumstances as a liberty, power, immunity, or claim-right. The locus of any corresponding duty for a claim-right is no less problematic. Consequently human rights must be examined more closely, because they are at once so important and yet so vulnerable to probing questions about their origin, foundation, substance, and operation. ธนบัตร หมู่คนอื่น ๆ อาจพร้อมโอบกอดสำนวนของสิทธิมนุษยชน แต่เราต้องถามว่า สิทธิมนุษยชนเหล่านี้เป็นสิทธิของพลเมืองจริง ๆ ในแง่ของความคิดเฉพาะของสังคม โดยทฤษฎีภายใต้ตรึงของสิทธิมนุษยชน ตลอดจนการดำเนินการในบริบทของสิทธิเฉพาะกรณีปัญหาการศึกษา เราอาจมาขึ้นฟูลเลอร์ของขอบเขตที่สิทธิมนุษยชนขึ้นอยู่กับเจตนา (แต่มักจะบดบัง) ทางเลือกนโยบายได้สารตั้งต้นตรงสุดสิทธิมนุษยชนอาจพบได้ในความเข้าใจของ 'ธรรมชาติขวา' พัฒนา โดยคลาสสิกปรัชญากรีก เช่นอริสโตเติล แต่แนวคิดนี้ถูกพัฒนา โดย Thomas อไควนัสใน Summa Theologica ของเขามากขึ้นอย่างเต็ม หลายศตวรรษของอไควนัสคิดจัดกทาง: มีสินค้าหรืออากัปกิริยาที่ธรรมชาติขวา (หรือผิดไป) เนื่องจากพระออกบวชก็เพื่อ อะไรถูกธรรมชาติอาจจะ ascertained โดยมนุษย์ โดย 'ขวาเหตุผล' - คิดถูกต้อง Hugo Grotius เพิ่มเติมขยายในความคิดนี้ใน De jure belli ขวาร้อยเอ็ด paci ที่เขา propounded immutability ที่เป็นธรรมชาติ และไม่ถูกต้อง:
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