1 Understanding political change in Southeast Asia
(อ.โกสุมภ์ สายจันทร์)
Understanding political change in Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia is vast region, comprised of eleven countries and incredible diversity. From one country to the next, dominant languages vary religious groups are different and histories are all dissimilar from one another. In comparison to Latin America or Africa – other large regions of the world – the study of politics in Southeast Asia can be particularly challenging.
Latin America and Africa are also very diverse but their respective countries share more some similarities that make comparisons somewhat more common. The Spanish language, for instance, binds countries of Latin America where id dominant in all countries expect Brazil. Countries of the region were all colonized, and Spain was the dominant power foe several centuries. Latin America countries inherited societies in which descendants of Spanish colonizer and mestizo (mixed) classes are now dominant. These common characteristics often tainted their style of politics, with some very interesting parallels among several countries. To a lesser extent, the African experience also generated similarities that have been compared analytically. In Africa, the division of the continent between mostly French and British colonial rule created some homogenizing experience as well. French and English become common languages of communication throughout West and East/Southern Africa respectively. Colonization by these power, which imposed bureaucratic structures over societies mostly organized in small political units, created some similar dysfunctional ties that have persisted in the modern independence stated (Mamdani,1996; Yong,1994.) Comparisons have often been made between clusters of African countries. Where the continued legacies of colonial rule have been blamed for the inability of states to overcome poverty and other major challenges in the continent.
By contrast, Southeast Asia’s diversity makes comparison and large generalization about the region less frequent. Although interactions among people stretch back hundreds years, and cross-culture influence have left tgeir trace in every country, the region never developed a common language or a common culture heritage (Liederman,2330; Reid,1988). Several major religious took root. Hindu beliefs spread from India to the archipelagic Southeast Asia, and become widespread among the Javanese and other peoples. Honusin lefts its trace in such temples as Prambanan in Java. Theravada Buddhism become a dominant religion in vast areas of continental Southeast Asia, comprising today’s Thailand, Cambodia and Laos in particular. Islam, which again came from South Asia. Spread through merchants and scholar who travelled the coastal areas. Conversions and the establishment of sultanates displace Hinduism and Buddhism across Southeast Asian archipelago, leaving only trace of believers in such places as Bali and the Tengger highlands of Java. Today’s Indonesia and Malaysia are predominantly Muslim.
The region was also divided up between several colonial power which consequently different effects on the sub regions under their respective control. The extent of penetration of colonial rule varied considerably, thereby affecting local structures in varying ways. Local languages remained dominant , while colonial languages only briefly become the lingua franca. Although some language eventually superseded others to bind several people together and be later elevated as national languages, on one language establish itself as a regional medium of communication. This prevented the kind of similarity of experience and common trajectories found in some parts of Latin America and Africa.
European colonialism and its influence
When European first reach the archipelago in the 16 century, they found well-establish societies, solid trading networks and strong kingdoms. For the mast part, Europeans came to the region in search of commodities. Market for exotic spices was rapidly expanding in Europe and entrepreneurial merchants sough new means of profiting from the spice trade. Portuguese merchants created a first trading post at Malaca, which was strategically positioned6 on the coast that overlooked one of the sea trading routes. They competed with local merchants to size control over trade in some of the more profitable spices. They set up more trading post coastal areas but often clashed with local traders.
Asia was a very dynamic place with advance civilization complex cultures and societies, as well as sophisticated bureaucratic systems, that had been established well before there was much contact with Europe. Yet, it was not isolated. Traders, adventures and conquerors criss-crossed Asia from the Indian subcontinent to the eastern trip of today’s China. With human flows also came the transmission of ideas, such as new religious beliefs. Links also stretched to the Roman Empire and different parts of today’s Europe. Political organization was vastly different from one location to the next. Most prominently, successive Han and Mongul dynasties controlled vast areas of Eastern Asia, spreading their political and cultural influence over neighboring areas of today’s Southeast Asia.. After Qin Shi Huangdi created the Chinese empire in 221-210 BC, the Chinese state became highly centralized, as its influence expended over the following centuries. Smaller surrounding kingdoms, such as the Viet or Korean kingdom absorbed some of the Chinese cultural influences. While struggling to maintain their independence. In much of Southeast Asia. Political were a great deal smaller, and tended to change regular. According to Lieberman, from the 14 century onwards, mainland Southeast Asia did see a greater consolidation over time, buy archipelagic Southeast Asia remained more fluid. Some kingdoms were formed in parts of today’s Java’ Bali’ Maluka” and Cambodia’ foe instance, but they were held together often by kinship and religious ties rather than bureaucratic structure or territorial control (Lieberman,2003). The base, scale and types of political organization were therefore different across the region, and so were the modalities og legitimacy.
Colonialism set a new course and began to transform this diverse landscape, through interactive and administrative change that would eventually give way to the emergence of modern states. European influences deeply affected many societies. Including their culture and mode of social organization. Politically, colonialism introduced modern forms of warfare, fostered rapid and deeper integrations to world markets, set new and more fixed boundaries and imposed new forms of administrative and political organization. As the historian Anthony Reid has noted. This imperial alchemy mixed with a varied landscape of diverse societies culture to produce new forms (Reid 2010).
Resistance to colonial rule eventually latched onto global political trends as well. The flipside of colonialism’s transformative power is the history of popular discontent and rebellion again European intrusion. Where European powers countered well-established kingdoms, sometimes military force was the only means by which to subjugate local populations. Muslims in Mamdanao and the Sulu Archipelago Zin today’s Southern Philippines), for instance militarily resisted Spanish conquest. So did the against the Dutch colonial army’s attempts to gain full control over the territory representing today’s Indonesia. Once consolidated, colonial regimes encountered this type of the large and small-scale residence. Millenarian movements were large scale peasant rebellions that were mobilized by leaders who were seen almost as prophets or messiahs offering more prosperous and better future. The Java War of 1825-30’ let by prince Dipnegoro in the Dutch East Indies’ as well as the Saya San Rebellion of 1930-2 in British Burman both had this character (Adas’1979) At other times’ peasants rebelled in smaller’ less visible in villages or more contained locations. James C. Scott wrote about peasant rebellion under colonial rule. He explains how the colonial rule economy threatened the norms and moral codes of conduct in peasant societies. Peasant rebelled when redistributive norms and survival strategies came under intense pressure form colonial transformation’ thereby violating the moral economy of the peasant (Scott’ 1967). While they might join large-scale rebellious movement, they could also adopt everyday forms of resistance which are individual acts of resistance’ often hidden’ targeted at landowners or authority figures (Scott’ 1985). By the beginning of the twentieth century new ideologies and models of political organization emerged globally. They inspired and channeled rebellions into more organized more modern from of resistance’ such as nationalist and communist movements.
European encounters
Southeast Asian countries were colonized by several different European power: Portuguese, Dutch, British, French and Spanish conquered different parts of the region, more or less intensively, and with a varied set of goals. Not only did their approach to colonialism vary but, given the wide variety of the political, social and culture contexts, the outcomes of colonialism remained quite diverse as well.
At the outset, European came mainly to establish trading posts, and only much later intensified their involvement. The Portuguese first establish a trading post at Malaca in 1511. As with their successors, the Portuguese were lured by spice. While they displace Arab and Indian Muslim merchants in the Strait of Malaca, they vied mainly for the spice rich Moluccan Islands (present day Maluku). They established forts and trading posts in several locations across the Moluccas, while largely ignoring mainland Southeast Saia. Several local populations and traders lat