An alternative explanation for the main results in this paper is provided by prospect theory, due to Kahneman and Tversky (1979). Prospect theory postulates that decision-makers derive value from gains and losses with respect to a reference point, rather than from absolute levels of wealth. Prospect theory also suggests that ndividuals' value functions are concave in gains and convex in losses (S-shaped). In other words, value functions are steepest around wealth reference points. Thus, for a given increase in wealth, the corresponding increase in value is greatest when the increase in wealth moves the individual from a loss to a gain relative to a reference point
The concepts and predictions of prospect theory have natural counterparts in
our paper. Different decision-makers likely have different reference points. Zero change in earnings is a natural reference point for decision-makers who estimate
wealth as a multiple of earnings. Zero level of earnings is a natural reference point if wealth is measured by (or is a multiple of) net accounting assets. Assuming that the cost of earnings management to achieve a given amount of earnings increase is approximately constant, and that managers manipulate wealth measures (earnings and changes in earnings) to affect the value perceived by stockholders and other stakeholders, we expect to observe earnings-increasing management around wealth reference points in this case, in the vicinity of zero changes of earnings and zero levels of earnings. Thus, the main results reported in this paper are consistent with the predictions of prospect theory. However, a more direct and careful examination of the prospect theory explanation is needed and is left for future research
An alternative explanation for the main results in this paper is provided by prospect theory, due to Kahneman and Tversky (1979). Prospect theory postulates that decision-makers derive value from gains and losses with respect to a reference point, rather than from absolute levels of wealth. Prospect theory also suggests that ndividuals' value functions are concave in gains and convex in losses (S-shaped). In other words, value functions are steepest around wealth reference points. Thus, for a given increase in wealth, the corresponding increase in value is greatest when the increase in wealth moves the individual from a loss to a gain relative to a reference point
The concepts and predictions of prospect theory have natural counterparts in
our paper. Different decision-makers likely have different reference points. Zero change in earnings is a natural reference point for decision-makers who estimate
wealth as a multiple of earnings. Zero level of earnings is a natural reference point if wealth is measured by (or is a multiple of) net accounting assets. Assuming that the cost of earnings management to achieve a given amount of earnings increase is approximately constant, and that managers manipulate wealth measures (earnings and changes in earnings) to affect the value perceived by stockholders and other stakeholders, we expect to observe earnings-increasing management around wealth reference points in this case, in the vicinity of zero changes of earnings and zero levels of earnings. Thus, the main results reported in this paper are consistent with the predictions of prospect theory. However, a more direct and careful examination of the prospect theory explanation is needed and is left for future research
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