different research traditions that attempted to explain cooperative behaviors. Some
approaches in the multidisciplinary cooperation literature focus solely on the context in
which cooperative relationships occur, while others focus on the aspects of the
relationship between and personalities of the cooperating parties. Similarly, some
research traditions view cooperating parties as agents acting out of selfishness, while
others maintain that interpersonal attraction and psychological attachment matter. More
fundamentally, some research traditions take a single transaction as unit of analysis, and
yet many others focus on ongoing relationships. Recognizing this theoretical "richness,"
Smith, Carroll, and Ashford (1995) provide a typology that organizes various theoretical
perspectives in the cooperation literature into five broad categories. Their work is
summarized in Figure 1.1, for it is seen as a useful guide for the development of the
model proposed in this study. Conceptual links between these theoretical perspectives
and the four-factor framework of antecedents of salesforce cooperation proposed in this
study will be provided in the next section. It should be noted, however, that Smith,
Carrol, and Ashford (1995) recognize and note that the five theoretical categories in their
typology overlap with each other in terms of many aspects. In addition, because the focus
of their work is on cooperative relationships in general, not specificly on interpersonal
cooperation, their typology does not include theories pertaining to the impact of personal
(individual) differences on cooperative behaviors.
Exchange Theories: Theories that explain cooperative behaviors based on conscious and
calculative orientations of individuals. Cooperation is viewed as a means of maximizing
economic or psychological benefits (Blau 1964). Specific exemplar theories include
transaction cost theory, reinforcement theory, social psychology theories of exchange,
micro and macro sociological theories of exchange, symbolic interaction theory, rational
or normative decision-making theories.
Attraction Theories: Theories that focus on interpersonal attraction that seems to create
natural attachment. Specific variables postulated to influence cooperative behaviors
include value or status similarities, complementary needs, aspects of personality, goal
congruence, and information needs. These theories emphasize the non-economic aspects
of cooperative relationships (Hollinghead 1950; Kennedy 1944).
Power and Conflict Theories: Conflict, the opposite of cooperation according to some
authors, is the key concept in these theories (Emerson 1962; Pfeffer and Salancik 1978).
Diversity in individuals' resources, perceptions of injustice, and value and goal
differences are seen as drivers of conflict.
Social Structure Theories: Theories that emphasize dimensions outside the relationship
to explain cooperation. Social structures in which the relationship occurs are postulated as
the primary factors that cause the emergence of cooperative behaviors (Blau 1964).
Exemplar structural variables include organizational structure, number of participants,
distance, homogeneity, etc.
ModeUng Theories: Theories that emphasize social learning, imitation, and modeling in
social contexts (Bandura 1971; DiMaggio and Powell 1983). Cooperative behaviors are
investigated in terms of the influences on individuals induced by referent groups, social
norms, exemplar individuals, etc.
Figure 1.1. Five Theoretical Perspectives Explaining Cooperation.
Source: Adapted from Smith, Carroll, and Ashford (1995).
7
Antecedents of Cooperative Behaviors Amongst Salespeople:
A Four-Factor Conceptual Framework
Identifying the conditions under which organizational members are likely to
display cooperative behaviors is a difficult task because, as can be inferred from the
several different theoretical approaches listed in Figure 1.1, an individual's tendency to
behave cooperatively can be influenced by a variety of factors (Chatman and Barsade
1995). Among the various factors studied by prior research are personality traits, the
degree to which organizational control systems encourage cooperation, the degree to
which cooperation is necessary to achieve personal or organizational objectives, and the
degree to which various structural and cultural aspects of the organization enable
organizational members to behave cooperatively (e.g., Chatman and Barsade 1995;
McClintock and Liebrand 1988; Petersen 1992).
A key distinguishing aspect of the present study is the multidisciplinary approach
that combines the propositions of several distinct research traditions in a single
framework. It is expected that such an approach will provide the necessary means for a
simultaneous investigation of the various factors proposed by prior researchers to affect
cooperation. For example, in a game theoretic approach to determine antecedents of
coo