AbstractSection:Next section
OBJECTIVE: Major depression is a major risk factor for suicide. However, not all individuals with major depression commit suicide. Impulsive and aggressive behaviors have been proposed as risk factors for suicide, but it remains unclear whether their effect on the risk of suicide is at least partly explained by axis I disorders commonly associated with suicide, such as major depression. With a case-control design, a comparison of the level of impulsive and aggressive behaviors and the prevalence of associated psychopathology was carried out with control for the presence of primary psychopathology. METHOD: One hundred and four male suicide completers who died during an episode of major depression and 74 living depressed male comparison subjects were investigated with proxy-based interviews by using structured diagnostic instruments and personality trait assessments. RESULTS: The authors found that current (6-month prevalence) alcohol abuse/dependence, current drug abuse/dependence, and cluster B personality disorders increased the risk of suicide in individuals with major depression. Also, higher levels of impulsivity and aggression were associated with suicide. An analysis by age showed that these risk factors were more specific to younger suicide victims (ages 18–40). A multivariate analysis indicated that current alcohol abuse/dependence and cluster B personality disorder were two independent predictors of suicide. CONCLUSIONS: Impulsive-aggressive personality disorders and alcohol abuse/dependence were two independent predictors of suicide in major depression, and impulsive and aggressive behaviors seem to underlie these risk factors. A developmental hypothesis of suicidal behavior, with impulsive and aggressive behaviors as the starting point, is discussed.
Several lines of evidence confirm the strong association between major depressive disorder and completed suicide (1–4). More specifically, estimates indicate that approximately 60% of suicide victims suffered from major depressive disorder and other mood disorders (3, 5–7). On the other hand, most subjects affected with major depressive disorder do not die by suicide. The lifetime mortality risk by suicide of subjects with major depressive disorder who have been inpatients has usually been reported at around 15% (8). This was revised to 3.4%, with a higher risk in men (7%) than in women (1%) (9). Regardless of the exact suicide mortality risk faced by subjects affected with major depressive disorder, it is clear that this figure is substantial. Why some patients with major depressive disorder die by suicide while others with seemingly the same disorder do not, is a question of enormous clinical relevance.
Among sociodemographic risk factors, gender, marital status, and migration are those more strongly associated with suicide in patients with major depressive disorder (10, 11). Issues related to social and/or medical support, such as discharge from psychiatric care (12) and certain clinical symptoms, have also been identified as predictors of suicide. In addition, a positive history of suicide attempts seems to be a powerful predictor identified by some studies (13–15). Furthermore, investigators have reported that various clinical symptoms of depression, such as insomnia, memory problems, self-neglect, anhedonia, hopelessness, and comorbidity with alcohol dependence/abuse, increase the risk of suicide (11, 16–19).
There has been growing evidence to support the role of impulsive and aggressive behaviors in the risk of suicide. Studies assessing living patients with major depressive disorder have indicated that suicide attempters have higher levels of impulsive and aggressive behaviors (20–24). Similarly, studies looking at the prevalence of these traits in other diagnostic categories have also suggested that attempters are more likely to be impulsive and aggressive (25–29). However, data on impulsive and aggressive behaviors in suicide completers are limited and based primarily on indirect evidence, such as the prevalence of diagnostic categories associated with aggressive and impulsive traits. These studies showed that substance use disorders (1) and borderline personality disorders (30) are associated with an increased risk of suicide when they are comorbid with major depressive disorder. The few studies that carried out direct personality trait assessments remain controversial. Two studies found an association between aggression and suicide (31, 32), but one recent study in adults ages 50 and over showed that the association between aggression and suicide was no longer significant when the authors controlled for psychopathology (33). Therefore, it remains unclear whether the association between impulsive and aggressive behaviors and the risk of suicide is at least partly explained by axis I disorders that are commonly associated with suicide, such as major depressive disorder. This issue has not been properly addressed because almost all previous studies of suicide have exclusively investigated unselected suicide victims in relation to normal comparison subjects and lacked a psychiatric comparison group. Thus, the purpose of our study was to investigate impulsive and aggressive behaviors and associated psychopathology while we directly controlled for major depressive disorder. More specifically, we investigated subjects who committed suicide in the context of a major depressive episode and compared them to a group of age- and gender-matched living subjects with a current major depressive episode of sufficient severity to warrant treatment in a specialized psychiatric outpatient clinic but without a history of medically serious suicide attempts. A key methodological innovation in this study was the use of a proxy informant for both the suicide group, when it was necessary, and also for the living depressed comparison subjects to prevent a reporting artifact because of the method of data collection.
MethodSection:Previous sectionNext section
Subjects
Patients used for this study were 104 men ages 18 years and over who committed suicide, as determined by the Quebec Coroner’s Office, and who met DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder or depression not otherwise specified in the 6 months before their death. Individuals with depression not otherwise specified (operationally defined as depressed mood or lack of interest most of the time for at least 2 weeks and four symptoms of depression) were selected for this study because these patients most likely had major depressive disorder. They were not recognized as having such because of the reduced sensitivity of the psychological autopsy procedure, particularly for conditions present immediately before death (34). The subjects who met criteria for bipolar or any psychotic disorder were excluded to increase comparability between groups. Our subjects were consecutive male suicide victims (representative of male suicide cases in the general population) who were recruited primarily from 2000 to 2004. The acceptance rate of participation by the families of the suicide victims was 75%. Suicide cases from families who did not agree to participate were not different from those included in the study with regard to age, race, or method of suicide.
The comparison subjects were 74 living men, age-matched (within 2 years) to the cases, who met criteria for major depressive disorder with a condition severe enough to require follow-up in a specialized psychiatric outpatient clinic. The acceptance rate of participation was 90%, and those who did not agree to participate had similar demographic characteristics to those who accepted. To ensure comparability of the two groups, all comparison subjects were diagnosed by proxy-based interviews carried out on average 5 months after recruitment. This project was approved by our local institutional review board and the families of the suicide victims; comparison subjects and informants signed written informed consents.
Diagnoses
Psychiatric diagnoses in suicide victims were made by means of the psychological autopsy method. This technique, which has been validated for axis I and II diagnoses (32, 35, 36), consists in part of selecting a family member who was best acquainted with the deceased to serve as an informant for the interview process. In our study, the informants included a mother, father, sibling, significant other, friend, or other relative. We have previously shown that the type of informant makes no significant difference in the rate of specific disorders identified (3). The families were recruited at the Montreal Morgue and were interviewed, on average, 4 months after the suicide.
Psychiatric diagnoses were obtained by using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID) (37), in addition to the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Personality Disorders (SCID-II) (38). The SCID was used to investigate 71 suicide victims and all comparison subjects. Before the SCID, we used the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children (K-SADS) (39), an interview modified to include questions adapted from the Interview Schedule for Children (40), to assess personality disorders. As reported elsewhere (7), the diagnoses obtained using these two different methods had excellent concordance rates. Information collected through the SCID or the K-SADS interviews and from the coroner’s notes and medical records was used by the interviewers to write a case history for each subject. These case histories were reviewed by a clinical panel to reach a consensus regarding DSM-IV diagnoses for each subject.
Interrater Reliability
Two or more interviewers were asked to separately rate the same subject, and kappa coefficients for key diagnoses were excellent: major depression, 0.96; alcohol abuse/dependence, 0.98; drug abuse/dependence, 1.00; bipolar disorder, 1.00; schizophrenia, 1.
ส่วน AbstractSection:Nextวัตถุประสงค์: ภาวะซึมเศร้าที่สำคัญคือ ปัจจัยเสี่ยงสำคัญสำหรับการฆ่าตัวตาย อย่างไรก็ตาม บุคคลที่ไม่ มีภาวะซึมเศร้าที่สำคัญฆ่าตัวตาย พฤติกรรมก้าวร้าว และ impulsive ได้รับการเสนอชื่อเป็นปัจจัยเสี่ยงต่อการฆ่าตัวตาย แต่ยังคงไม่ชัดเจนว่าผลที่เกิดขึ้นบนความเสี่ยงของการฆ่าตัวตายเป็นบางส่วนที่อธิบาย โดยแกนผมโรคมักเกี่ยวข้องกับการฆ่าตัวตาย เช่นภาวะซึมเศร้าที่สำคัญ มีการออกแบบการควบคุมกรณี การเปรียบเทียบระดับของพฤติกรรมที่ก้าวร้าว และ impulsive และส่วนเกี่ยวข้อง psychopathology ถูกดำเนินการกับควบคุมของ psychopathology หลัก วิธีการ: completers ชายฆ่าตัวตายหนึ่งร้อย และสี่ที่เสียชีวิตในช่วงตอนเป็นของสำคัญและ 74 ชีวิตหดหู่เปรียบเทียบชายวิชาได้ตรวจสอบกับการสัมภาษณ์ที่อยู่พร็อกซี โดยใช้เครื่องมือวิเคราะห์โครงสร้างและการประเมินบุคลิกภาพติด ผลลัพธ์: ผู้เขียนพบว่า ปัจจุบัน (6 เดือนชุก) เครื่องดื่มแอลกอฮอล์ละเมิด/พึ่งพา ปัจจุบันยาละเมิด/พึ่งพา และคลัสเตอร์ B บุคลิกภาพผิดปกติเพิ่มความเสี่ยงของการฆ่าตัวตายในบุคคลที่มีภาวะซึมเศร้าที่สำคัญ ยัง impulsivity และรุกรานระดับสูงเกี่ยวข้องกับการฆ่าตัวตาย การวิเคราะห์ตามอายุพบว่า ปัจจัยเสี่ยงเหล่านี้ก็จะอายุน้อยกว่าเหยื่อฆ่าตัวตาย (อายุ 18 – 40) การวิเคราะห์ตัวแปรพหุบ่งชี้ว่า ปัจจุบันเครื่องดื่มแอลกอฮอล์ละเมิด/พึ่งพาและคลัสเตอร์ B โรคบุคลิกภาพถูก predictors อิสระสองฆ่าตัวตาย บทสรุป: โรคบุคลิกภาพ Impulsive ก้าวร้าวและละเมิดแอลกอฮอล์/พึ่งพาได้ predictors อิสระสองฆ่าตัวตายในโรคซึมเศร้าที่สำคัญ และพฤติกรรมก้าวร้าว และ impulsive ดูเหมือนจะ อยู่ภายใต้ปัจจัยเสี่ยงเหล่านี้ มีการกล่าวถึงสมมติฐานการพัฒนาพฤติกรรมอยากฆ่าตัวตาย มีพฤติกรรมก้าวร้าว และ impulsive เป็นจุดเริ่มต้นของหลักฐานยืนยันความสัมพันธ์ที่แข็งแกร่งระหว่างซึมเศร้าและฆ่าตัวตายแล้ว (1-4) มากขึ้นโดยเฉพาะ ประเมินว่า ประมาณ 60% ของเหยื่อฆ่าตัวตายรับความเดือดร้อนจากซึมเศร้าและโรคอารมณ์อื่น ๆ (3, 5-7) บนมืออื่น ๆ วิชาส่วนใหญ่ได้รับผลกระทบ ด้วยเศร้าไม่ตาย ด้วยการฆ่าตัวตาย มักจะมีการรายงานความเสี่ยงตายอายุการใช้งาน โดยการฆ่าตัวตายของเรื่องกับซึมเศร้าผู้มี inpatients ประมาณ 15% (8) นี้ได้แก้ไขไป 3.4% มีความเสี่ยงสูงในคน (7%) มากกว่าในผู้หญิง (1%) (9) การไม่ฆ่าตัวตายแน่นอนตายความเสี่ยงกับเรื่องที่ได้รับผลกระทบ ด้วยเศร้า เป็นที่ชัดเจนว่า ตัวเลขนี้จะพบ ทำไมบางผู้ป่วยซึมเศร้าตายด้วยการฆ่าตัวตายในขณะที่คนอื่น ๆ ด้วยดูเหมือนว่าโรคเดียวกันไม่ได้ เป็นคำถามของความเกี่ยวข้องทางคลินิกขนาดใหญ่Among sociodemographic risk factors, gender, marital status, and migration are those more strongly associated with suicide in patients with major depressive disorder (10, 11). Issues related to social and/or medical support, such as discharge from psychiatric care (12) and certain clinical symptoms, have also been identified as predictors of suicide. In addition, a positive history of suicide attempts seems to be a powerful predictor identified by some studies (13–15). Furthermore, investigators have reported that various clinical symptoms of depression, such as insomnia, memory problems, self-neglect, anhedonia, hopelessness, and comorbidity with alcohol dependence/abuse, increase the risk of suicide (11, 16–19).There has been growing evidence to support the role of impulsive and aggressive behaviors in the risk of suicide. Studies assessing living patients with major depressive disorder have indicated that suicide attempters have higher levels of impulsive and aggressive behaviors (20–24). Similarly, studies looking at the prevalence of these traits in other diagnostic categories have also suggested that attempters are more likely to be impulsive and aggressive (25–29). However, data on impulsive and aggressive behaviors in suicide completers are limited and based primarily on indirect evidence, such as the prevalence of diagnostic categories associated with aggressive and impulsive traits. These studies showed that substance use disorders (1) and borderline personality disorders (30) are associated with an increased risk of suicide when they are comorbid with major depressive disorder. The few studies that carried out direct personality trait assessments remain controversial. Two studies found an association between aggression and suicide (31, 32), but one recent study in adults ages 50 and over showed that the association between aggression and suicide was no longer significant when the authors controlled for psychopathology (33). Therefore, it remains unclear whether the association between impulsive and aggressive behaviors and the risk of suicide is at least partly explained by axis I disorders that are commonly associated with suicide, such as major depressive disorder. This issue has not been properly addressed because almost all previous studies of suicide have exclusively investigated unselected suicide victims in relation to normal comparison subjects and lacked a psychiatric comparison group. Thus, the purpose of our study was to investigate impulsive and aggressive behaviors and associated psychopathology while we directly controlled for major depressive disorder. More specifically, we investigated subjects who committed suicide in the context of a major depressive episode and compared them to a group of age- and gender-matched living subjects with a current major depressive episode of sufficient severity to warrant treatment in a specialized psychiatric outpatient clinic but without a history of medically serious suicide attempts. A key methodological innovation in this study was the use of a proxy informant for both the suicide group, when it was necessary, and also for the living depressed comparison subjects to prevent a reporting artifact because of the method of data collection.MethodSection:Previous sectionNext sectionSubjectsPatients used for this study were 104 men ages 18 years and over who committed suicide, as determined by the Quebec Coroner’s Office, and who met DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder or depression not otherwise specified in the 6 months before their death. Individuals with depression not otherwise specified (operationally defined as depressed mood or lack of interest most of the time for at least 2 weeks and four symptoms of depression) were selected for this study because these patients most likely had major depressive disorder. They were not recognized as having such because of the reduced sensitivity of the psychological autopsy procedure, particularly for conditions present immediately before death (34). The subjects who met criteria for bipolar or any psychotic disorder were excluded to increase comparability between groups. Our subjects were consecutive male suicide victims (representative of male suicide cases in the general population) who were recruited primarily from 2000 to 2004. The acceptance rate of participation by the families of the suicide victims was 75%. Suicide cases from families who did not agree to participate were not different from those included in the study with regard to age, race, or method of suicide.The comparison subjects were 74 living men, age-matched (within 2 years) to the cases, who met criteria for major depressive disorder with a condition severe enough to require follow-up in a specialized psychiatric outpatient clinic. The acceptance rate of participation was 90%, and those who did not agree to participate had similar demographic characteristics to those who accepted. To ensure comparability of the two groups, all comparison subjects were diagnosed by proxy-based interviews carried out on average 5 months after recruitment. This project was approved by our local institutional review board and the families of the suicide victims; comparison subjects and informants signed written informed consents.DiagnosesPsychiatric diagnoses in suicide victims were made by means of the psychological autopsy method. This technique, which has been validated for axis I and II diagnoses (32, 35, 36), consists in part of selecting a family member who was best acquainted with the deceased to serve as an informant for the interview process. In our study, the informants included a mother, father, sibling, significant other, friend, or other relative. We have previously shown that the type of informant makes no significant difference in the rate of specific disorders identified (3). The families were recruited at the Montreal Morgue and were interviewed, on average, 4 months after the suicide.Psychiatric diagnoses were obtained by using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID) (37), in addition to the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Personality Disorders (SCID-II) (38). The SCID was used to investigate 71 suicide victims and all comparison subjects. Before the SCID, we used the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children (K-SADS) (39), an interview modified to include questions adapted from the Interview Schedule for Children (40), to assess personality disorders. As reported elsewhere (7), the diagnoses obtained using these two different methods had excellent concordance rates. Information collected through the SCID or the K-SADS interviews and from the coroner’s notes and medical records was used by the interviewers to write a case history for each subject. These case histories were reviewed by a clinical panel to reach a consensus regarding DSM-IV diagnoses for each subject.Interrater ReliabilityTwo or more interviewers were asked to separately rate the same subject, and kappa coefficients for key diagnoses were excellent: major depression, 0.96; alcohol abuse/dependence, 0.98; drug abuse/dependence, 1.00; bipolar disorder, 1.00; schizophrenia, 1.
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