25°C The lowered heart rate results from a decrease in the spontaneous depolarization of pacemaker cells and is refractory to atropine. At core temperatures below 32°C, atrial dysrhythmia occurs, secondary to atrial distension. Ventricular arrhythmias are commonly observed below 32.2°C but primary ventricular fibrillation is rare at 32.2 C with maximal susceptibility occurring between 28°C and 30°C. 70 At core temperatures lower than 30°C, the heart is very sensitive to mechanical stimulation, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation efforts may convert a very slow sinus bradycardia to ventricular fibrillation. As the core temperature approaches 25°C, fluid shifts out of the vascular space which may increase the hematocrit by 150% The ensuing hypovolemia and increased blood viscosity further compromise the cardiac output.
An electrocardiogram demonstrates significant changes with hypothermia. These electrical changes are indicative of specific myocardial ionic activities that are influenced by the cold. Membrane currents are controlled by multiple processes that control the membrane channels, which are composed of lipoprotein and other chemicals whose activities are temperature-dependent. Thus, low temperatures result in both a slower activation and inactivation of different membrane currents, and they contribute to various electrophysiological changes. During hypothermia there is a prolongation of the PR and Q-T intervals and widening of the QRS complex. A significant drop in core temperature results in the reduction of the rate of depolarization, which in turn results in a widening of the QRS complex. The explanation for this phenomenon is that during hypothermia, the rate of the opening and closing of the sodium channels is decreased, and sodium-channel conduction is decreased as well, causing a reduction in the maximal rate of membrane depolarization. This phenomenon involves an interplay between various ions, such as sodium and potassium, because these ions have common trans port mechanisms.
Hypothermia so influences the repolarization phase of the cardiac action potential. Due to alterations in various potassium currents, a drop of one Centigrade degree in myocardial temperature lengthens the cardiac action potential and refractory period by 15 to 20 milliseconds. During phase I of repolarization, there is an early transient out ward potassium current. During phase III, there are two simultaneous temperature-sensitive currents a time-dependent, delayed rectifying, potassium current and a time-independent, inwardly rectifying potassium current. When both of these repolarizing currents are reduced, a consequent lengthening of the action potential duration and refractory period occurs. Other inward currents, such as sodium and calcium, are also affected by hypothermia and contribute to the lengthening of the action potential.
Following depolarization, there is an opening of the voltage-dependent calcium channels, causing an influx of calcium ions, which in turn activates the release of calcium from internal storage in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Subsequently, intracellular free calcium binds to contractile proteins, resulting n muscle contraction. As a result, during the initial stages of hypothermia, systolic contractile force and intracellular calcium increase. This is due either to increased levels of free cytosolic calcium or to the increased sensitivity of the contractile proteins to calcium. Some investigators contend that cardiovascular collapse during hypothermia is not due to the irregularities of myocardial contraction but to reduced contractility or arrhythmia.
The explanation for hypothermia-induced cardiac arrhythmias is not settled. The circus theory proposes that either a nonhomogeneous conduction or refractoriness, or both, may exist. As a result, there is a greater increase in conduction time than in the refractory period. Such an increase in the ratio of conduction time to refractory period makes reentry currents possible, resulting in ventricular fibrillation. Another explanation is that nonhomogeneous thermal profiles result in disproportionate changes in refractory periods and conduction times. These cold-induced changes could easily produce multiple ectopic sites eventually resulting in ventricular fibrillation.
Hypothermia affects the atria and ventricles differently. Because the speed of conduction is greater in the atria than in the ventricles, the pacemakers