1. Introduction
Fruit photosynthesis occurs in coffee, pea, soybean, avocado, orange and apple. Photosynthetic activity of coffee fruit (Coffea arabica) seems to contribute 20–30% of the total photosynthesis of the tree [1]. Pods of pea (Pisum sativum) and soybean (Glycine max) show unique CO2 assimilation; outer layer of the pod captures CO2 from the outside atmosphere and the inner layer reassimilates the CO2 released from respiring seeds in the pod cavity [2] and [3]. In fleshy fruit, apple (Malus pumila) photosynthesis is relatively well studied and likely to have an intermediate status between non-autotrophic, C3 and C4/CAM photosynthesis [4]. Recently, we reported seasonal changes in photosynthetic rate in Satsuma mandarin fruit and suggested that the fruit may have intermediate status among C3, non-autotrophic tissue, and C4/CAM photosynthesis during middle stages of fruit development, because of concomitant activation of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) and photosynthesis [5]. In orange, in-situ studies showed the photosynthesis and transpiration rates of attached fruitlets [6], while SEM studies showed functional stomata and their densities on the developing, still green fruitlets [7].
Young fruit often are covered with paper bags to prevent fungal, insect, and physical damage and to promote color development on the fruit skin in Japanese commercial fruit tree orchards. However, bagging usually lowers sugar content at harvest [8], [9] and [10], and we considered this phenomenon as inhibition of fruit photosynthesis and PEPC activity in Satsuma mandarin [5]. However, detailed figures on fruit photosynthesis are unclear such as gas exchange pathway and response to different environments due to a massive CO2 gradient from the inside to the outside of the fruit [4].
In this study, first, we aimed to observe the stomata development on the fruit surface and relate their appearance to the transpiration of Satsuma mandarin. Then, we tried to determine the photosynthetic responses of the fruit to different CO2 and photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) levels.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Plant materials
Three fully-grown trees of Satsuma mandarin (Citrus unshiu Marc. cv. Uenowase) were used at the Experimental Farm of Mie University, Tsu, Mie, Japan.
2.2. Stoma observation on fruit
Three fruits were sampled at about 1 month intervals and 3 rind pieces (5 mm length × 5 mm width × 1 mm thickness) were prepared by using razor blade from fruit apex, equator and stem end zones, respectively. The pieces were then pre-fixed with 3% glutaraldehyde in 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) for 24 h, post-fixed with 1% osmic acid for 1 h, and dehydrated in vacuo. Samples dipped in isoamyl acetate for 2 h were dried in a critical point dryer, mounted on a sample supporter and coated with gold for 8 min in a vacuum evaporator. The samples were observed under scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Hitachi S-4000, Japan) and photographed. To assess stoma development, long axis of the stoma was measured using at least 20 stomata at each sampling date. The percentage of collapsed stoma (Fig. 1D) was also calculated using at least 40 stomata.
Fig. 1.
Stoma observation by SEM on Satsuma mandarin fruit.
A: Equator zone of the fruit 28 DAFB.
B: A soma consisted of a domed projection and a pair of guard cells 28 DAFB at equator zone.
C: A stoma showing a clear crevice between two guard cells 28 DAFB at equator zone.
D: Stalk end zone of the fruit 63 DAFB. Note the possibly developing stoma (d), intact stoma (i), and collapsed stoma (c), respectively.
E: A stoma with collapsed guard cells 153 DAFB at stem end zone.
F: A collapsed stoma accumulated wax-like substances in the hole 209 DAFB at apex zone.
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2.3. Determination of fruit transpiration rate
Three fruits were used for determining transpiration rate at 64, 102, 136, 160, 189 and 218 days after full bloom (DAFB). Fruit diameter was ∼30, 45, 62, 75, 76 and 73 mm respectively, and fruits were green up to ∼120 DAFB. The cut surface of fruit peduncle was sealed with lanoline and placed into cylindrical glass bottle (11.5 cm inner diameter × 9 cm height). The bottle was covered by a cap equipped with humidity sensor (Vaisala HM 141, Finland), irradiated with 76 μmol m−2 s−1 light supplied by halogen lamps (Sumita Optical Glass, Saitama, Japan), and humidity increase in the bottle was recorded at 1 min intervals. Since the humidity increase lowered after 5 min-incubation in young fruit or 3 min-incubation in developed fruit, initial linear line was used for determining transpiration rate. Transpiration rate was measured in each fruit and expressed as mmol H2O m−2 s−1.
2.4. Determination of fruit photosynthesis under different CO2 and low PPFD levels
Fruits 94 DAFB were used for determining in-vitro response to different CO2 concentrations, and fruits 114 DAFB were for different low PPFD, respectively, because the mandarin fruits show active photosynthesis during these stages as reported previously [5]. Photosynthesis and respiration rates were measured by oxygen electrode apparatus (Rank Brothers, Cambridge, U.K.) supplemented with halogen lamps (Sumita Optical Glass, Saitama, Japan) as reported earlier [5]. Briefly, 10 rind discs (3 mm diameter) were prepared from equator zone of three fruits with the albedo tissue removed, soaked in 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) for 30 s, and placed in an electrode tank with 3 ml of fresh phosphate buffer at 25 °C. The CO2 concentration, 50–1000 ppm, was adjusted by adding different amount of NaHCO3 solution into the tank and PPFD of 135 μmol m−2 s−1 was supplied. The pH in the tank was 7.0. Meanwhile, PPFD, from 2.7 to 270 μmol m−2 s−1, was regulated by placing the lamp at various distances from the electrode tank containing 440 ppm CO2. The O2 increase (net photosynthesis) in the buffer was recorded under light conditions for 15 min, then O2 decrease (respiration) was measured for 10 min under dark by covering the tank with three layers of aluminum foil. Before use, the buffer had been bubbled with N2 gas for 1 h and stored in a desiccator containing 2 M NaOH to remove CO2. Leaf photosynthesis and respiration rates were also measured as a control by using 10 discs (3 mm diameter) from five leaves at the same sampling date. Experiments were repeated at least 3 times and mean value ± SE was presented.
2.5. Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were performed for the data obtained by, at least, three replications in each experiment by using Excel (Version 12.3.2; Microsoft, Redmond, WA). Data were expressed means ± SES unless otherwise indicated.
3. Results
Stomata were present over the fruit surface in Satsuma mandarin (Fig. 1A). Each stoma was composed of a domed projection with a hole at the top and a pair of guard cell were equipped inside the hole (Fig. 1B). Many stomata seemed to be morphologically intact in young fruit; intact guard cells and a clear crevice between them were observed (Fig. 1C). When the stoma density was calculated, 200–300 mm−2 stomata were present during 28 (∼10 mm diameter fruit) and 63 DAFB (∼30 mm diameter fruit), and it was higher in fruit apex and equator zones than stem end zone (Fig. 2). The density lowered gradually until 153 DAFB and maintained constant levels thereafter, with approximately 30 mm−2, at respective zones. On young fruit surface, several stomata appeared to be immature and still developing (Fig. 1D, d). When the length of stoma long axis was checked, it increased up to 118 DAFB in stem end, 88 DAFB in equator and 63 DAFB in apex zone, respectively, and remained almost the constant levels thereafter (Table 1). On the other hand, some collapsed stomata were also present on the same fruit (Fig. 1D, c). The collapse was observed already 28 DAFB and the frequency increased slowly until 118 DAFB and rapidly up to 153 DAFB (Table 2). The collapse occurred earlier at distal zone of the fruit and occupied more than 80% of the stomata at mature stage. In a collapsed stoma, the guard cells destroyed in many cases (Fig. 1E), and finally, domed projection also broke down and waxy substance appeared to accumulate in the hole (Fig. 1F).
Fig. 2.
Seasonal changes in stoma density and transpiration rate in Satsuma mandarin fruit. Vertical bars indicate SE.
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Table 1.
Changes in stoma length during fruit development in Satsuma mandarin.
Fruit zone Days after full bloom
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28 63 88 118 153 174 209
Stem end 13.98 ± 1.67 16.52 ± 1.13 16.71 ± 0.99 19.07 ± 0.23 19.38 ± 0.58 19.22 ± 0.93 20.23 ± 0.83
Equator 15.40 ± 0.63 16.14 ± 0.86 18.63 ± 0.74 18.63 ± 0.74 19.53 ± 0.93 19.38 ± 0.81 19.39 ± 0.88
Apex 15.31 ± 0.45 19.07 ± 3.21 19.27 ± 0.37 19.81 ± 0.43 21.09 ± 0.89 20.88 ± 0.42 21.35 ± 1.29
Values in the table are the mean length of stoma long axis (μm) ±SE.
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Table 2.
Changes in collapsed stomata during fruit development in Satsuma madarin.
Fruit zone Days after full bloom
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28 63 88 118 153 174 209
Stem end 4.9 3.1 25.9 35.7 33.3 58.8 89.5
Equator 3.4 11.2 15.4 20.0 66.7 84.2 71.4
Apex 5.6 5.9 25.9 22.0 81.8 77.8 83.3
Values in the table are % of collapsed stomata.
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Fruit transpiration decreased during ontogeny from ∼6.5 (∼30 mm diameter fruit) to ∼1.9 mmol H2O m−2 s−1 (∼75 mm diameter fruit), and maintained constant levels thereafter (Fig. 2). The completely matured fruit still transpired at ∼1.9 mmol H2O m−2 s−1. During the fruit development, the rate did not match with stoma density but with stoma maturity and its intactness (Table 1 and Table 2).
Photosynthetic rate was compared between rind and leaf under different CO2 concentrations, from 50 to 1000 ppm (Fig. 3). Gross photosynthesis of rind increased with increasing CO2 until 500 ppm and decreased at higher concentrations, whereas leaf photosynthesis accelerated constantly depending on C