OTHER ASPCTS OF
COMPLEMENTATION AND
EMBEDDED CLAUSES
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we continue our discussion of issues related to complementation from Chapter 31. We also look at some clausal constructions where embedded clauses function in ways other than as complements to verbs, and return to a discussion of passive voice. Finally, we introduce some additional semantic distinctions among complement types; namely factive versus nonfactive predicates and implicative verbs.
The six new constructions we discuss in this chapter are:
Raising to subject: the subject of the complement becomes the subject of the higher clause.
It seems [that they have succeeded].
They seem [to have succeeded].
Complex-NP complements: the that-clause or infinitive functions as a complement to an NP.
The news [that a hurricane is coming] is worrisome.
This is a good time [to open a bottle of champagne].
Adjective complements: the fact than adjective, like verbs and nouns, can also take complements.
Joan is eager [to see you].
Extraposition of complements: the tendency of non-final heavy or dominant constituents to move to the end of the sentence.
[That he without any money] is unfortunate.
It is unfortunate [that he left without any money].
Constructions like easy-to-please: the object of the complement becomes the subject of the main clause.
It is important [to solve the problem].
The problem is important [to solve].
Complex passives: either the main clause or complement clause is in the passive voice thus making different word orders and structures possible.
[That he has the tournament] is rumored.
It is rumored [that he has won the tournament].
He is rumored to have won the tournament.
RAISING TO SUBJECT
Every sentence in English mast have some overt element in subject position. However, in certain constructions the subject position is filled with a word that does not fit our intuitive notion of what a subject “should be”. We have already seen in Chapter 23 that there in the there-construction has very general meaning and is placed in subject position primarily to allow for new information to appear in predicate position. We also saw in Chapter 23 that the word it in the sentence It is raining has no real-word referent. In this and the following sections of this chapter we will look at some additional instances in which it is used in nonreferential ways.
STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF RAISING
In Chapter 31, we discussed verb classes that are associated with certain types of complement. One additional type of verb that takes an obligatory complement is a copular verb, exemplified here by the verb seem. This verb commonly appears in three frames:
The offer seems good.
They seem to have succeeded.
It seems that they have succeeded.
In the first care, we have a sentence that we can already generate by the base rule for VP, one of whose possible expansions is [cop+AP].The other sentences cannot be so easily generated. We follow a standard analysis by which the second type of sentence is generated through a rule called raising-to-subject, which generates the subject of the main clause in the embedded sentence and then moves it forward and up into the main clause subject position:
[ ] seem [they to have succeeded] raising
They seem [[ ] to have succeeded].
In one way, the verb seems is like the verb hope in cases where the latter is followed by an infinitive. Wherever the verb seem is used with an infinitive following, the infinitive has as its logical subject the subject of the main clause. We cannot have, for example:
*They seem their friend to have succeeded.
However. The similarity ends there. One reason for the raising analysis is that this type of structure is not quite like that for verbs like hope, where the subject of the sentence controls a PRO in the dependent infinitive clause:
They hope [PRO to win game]
(PRO=they)
The two structures are different because, among other things, it is possible to have the semantically vague there in subject position in the main clause if the main verb is seem, but not if main verb is hope:
There seems to be something wrong.
There hopes to be . . .
The idea is that something must be controlling the reference of the subject of the embedded infinitive if the main verb is hope, and the word there cannot fulfill this require-ment since there does not refer to anything specific. With seem, however, control does not seem to be an issue; after all, we can say There seems to be something wrong. So an assumption in generative grammar, at least, has been that that the subject of the main clause in these sentences is generated as an empty slot and, because every sentence in English must have an overt subject, the subject of the infinitive moves up to first position in the main clause:
What, then, of the third type of sentence? These are sentences such as:
It seems that John is happy.
We cannot have raising here, since the result would be ungrammatical:〖^1〗
*John seems that [ ] is happy.
We may simply assume, then, that the that-clause in this case is a complement generated in the position after the verb and that the nonreferential subject it is placed in initial position to fulfill the requirement for a surface subject. Other verbs that follow the pattern of seem in the relevant respects include turn out, happen, and appear.
It turned out that John got the promotion.
John turned out to get the promotion.
It happens/appears that you are right.
You happen/appear to be right.
Three other verb-like construction that are similar but not completely parallel are seem like, sound like, and look like:
It seems like (*that) something is wrong.
Something seems like it’s wrong.
It sounds like (*that) you don’t agree.
You sound like you don’t agree.
It looks like (*that) our roof is going to cave in.
Our roof looks like it is going to cave in.
Here the unacceptability of the complementizer that is probably related to the fact that these verbs involve a prepositional construction; as we have already noted in chapter 31, a tensed that clause cannot be the object of preposition.〖^2〗
Raising is also sometimes held to operate in the case of certain adjective constructions such as be (un) likely, be certain. We get the same structural alternations as with verbs like seem, and the same patterns of ungrammaticality:
It is unlikely/certain that we will be able to return the merchandise.
*We are unlikely/certain that will be able to return the merchandise.
We are unlikely/certain to return the merchandise.
We derive the last of these sentences exactly as we did seem + infinitive, by generating the subject NP in the embedded clause and then promotion it into subject position in the main clause.
ESL/EFL ISSUES WITH RAISING STRUCTURES
As with other instances in which it plays a mainly formal role in English sentences namely to fulfill the requirement that a surface subject be expressed-ESL/EFL teachers may find their students omitting the it in sentences with seem and similar verb. This is because other languages may exhibit no such requirement, permitting sentences like:
Seems (that) John is sick today.
Looks like we won’t be able to do it.
In fact, in highly colloquial speech even native English speakers may omit it in these sentences. However, in more formal registers this is not an option, especially not in academic writing and teachers may want to stress this fact in classes. Student learners will also produce sentences like these, which mix the possible syntactic frames for seem and be certain:
*He seems like to be not every honest.
(It seems like he is not very honest.)
*I am certain for the assignment to be very easy.
(I am certain that the assignment will be very easy.)
A teacher faced with sentences like the starred ones above should be aware of the structural options available to native speakers and the confusion that ESL/EFL learners may experience in trying to select among them.
OTHER TYPES OF CLAUSAL COMPLEMENTS
Up to now, all of the clausal complements we have presented have been complements to verb. However, these are not the only types of complements: both nouns and adjectives may like complements as well.
COMPLEX-NP COMPLEMENTS
We have seen many cases in Chapter 31 of that-clause function as embedded complement objects of main verbs. That-clauses often function as complements of NPs as well, especiaily in conjunction with certain NPs that represent a cognitive stance or indicate the presumed truth value of the proposition expressed in the complement clause. Such NPs are often called complex NPs. Some example sentences those below, with the head noun in italics:
The belief [that petroleum reserves are infinite] is again common nowadays.
I don’t agree with the notion [that there is no future in electric cars].
Do you believe the claim [that Sam is really a bigamist]?
Her interest in Monet lies in the face [that he was a French painter].
The news [that a hurricane was coming our way] made us worry.
It’s time [to give up and go bed].
This is a good occasion [to open a bottle of champagne].
Each complex NP includes a simple NP plus a complement clause. Note carefully that although the that-clause examples look similar to relative clauses, they are grammatically distinct. For instance, the that at the beginning of the complement clause cannot be identified with any NP in the clause (as can the word that in a clause like Mary saw the coat [that she wanted to buy [ ]], where that is moved forward from object position and is identical to coat). Our phrase structure rule for NP must be adapted again to permit an expansion of this type:
NP NP S
S comp.S’
The tree structure will be the following:
OTHER ASPCTS OF
COMPLEMENTATION AND
EMBEDDED CLAUSES
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we continue our discussion of issues related to complementation from Chapter 31. We also look at some clausal constructions where embedded clauses function in ways other than as complements to verbs, and return to a discussion of passive voice. Finally, we introduce some additional semantic distinctions among complement types; namely factive versus nonfactive predicates and implicative verbs.
The six new constructions we discuss in this chapter are:
Raising to subject: the subject of the complement becomes the subject of the higher clause.
It seems [that they have succeeded].
They seem [to have succeeded].
Complex-NP complements: the that-clause or infinitive functions as a complement to an NP.
The news [that a hurricane is coming] is worrisome.
This is a good time [to open a bottle of champagne].
Adjective complements: the fact than adjective, like verbs and nouns, can also take complements.
Joan is eager [to see you].
Extraposition of complements: the tendency of non-final heavy or dominant constituents to move to the end of the sentence.
[That he without any money] is unfortunate.
It is unfortunate [that he left without any money].
Constructions like easy-to-please: the object of the complement becomes the subject of the main clause.
It is important [to solve the problem].
The problem is important [to solve].
Complex passives: either the main clause or complement clause is in the passive voice thus making different word orders and structures possible.
[That he has the tournament] is rumored.
It is rumored [that he has won the tournament].
He is rumored to have won the tournament.
RAISING TO SUBJECT
Every sentence in English mast have some overt element in subject position. However, in certain constructions the subject position is filled with a word that does not fit our intuitive notion of what a subject “should be”. We have already seen in Chapter 23 that there in the there-construction has very general meaning and is placed in subject position primarily to allow for new information to appear in predicate position. We also saw in Chapter 23 that the word it in the sentence It is raining has no real-word referent. In this and the following sections of this chapter we will look at some additional instances in which it is used in nonreferential ways.
STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF RAISING
In Chapter 31, we discussed verb classes that are associated with certain types of complement. One additional type of verb that takes an obligatory complement is a copular verb, exemplified here by the verb seem. This verb commonly appears in three frames:
The offer seems good.
They seem to have succeeded.
It seems that they have succeeded.
In the first care, we have a sentence that we can already generate by the base rule for VP, one of whose possible expansions is [cop+AP].The other sentences cannot be so easily generated. We follow a standard analysis by which the second type of sentence is generated through a rule called raising-to-subject, which generates the subject of the main clause in the embedded sentence and then moves it forward and up into the main clause subject position:
[ ] seem [they to have succeeded] raising
They seem [[ ] to have succeeded].
In one way, the verb seems is like the verb hope in cases where the latter is followed by an infinitive. Wherever the verb seem is used with an infinitive following, the infinitive has as its logical subject the subject of the main clause. We cannot have, for example:
*They seem their friend to have succeeded.
However. The similarity ends there. One reason for the raising analysis is that this type of structure is not quite like that for verbs like hope, where the subject of the sentence controls a PRO in the dependent infinitive clause:
They hope [PRO to win game]
(PRO=they)
The two structures are different because, among other things, it is possible to have the semantically vague there in subject position in the main clause if the main verb is seem, but not if main verb is hope:
There seems to be something wrong.
There hopes to be . . .
The idea is that something must be controlling the reference of the subject of the embedded infinitive if the main verb is hope, and the word there cannot fulfill this require-ment since there does not refer to anything specific. With seem, however, control does not seem to be an issue; after all, we can say There seems to be something wrong. So an assumption in generative grammar, at least, has been that that the subject of the main clause in these sentences is generated as an empty slot and, because every sentence in English must have an overt subject, the subject of the infinitive moves up to first position in the main clause:
What, then, of the third type of sentence? These are sentences such as:
It seems that John is happy.
We cannot have raising here, since the result would be ungrammatical:〖^1〗
*John seems that [ ] is happy.
We may simply assume, then, that the that-clause in this case is a complement generated in the position after the verb and that the nonreferential subject it is placed in initial position to fulfill the requirement for a surface subject. Other verbs that follow the pattern of seem in the relevant respects include turn out, happen, and appear.
It turned out that John got the promotion.
John turned out to get the promotion.
It happens/appears that you are right.
You happen/appear to be right.
Three other verb-like construction that are similar but not completely parallel are seem like, sound like, and look like:
It seems like (*that) something is wrong.
Something seems like it’s wrong.
It sounds like (*that) you don’t agree.
You sound like you don’t agree.
It looks like (*that) our roof is going to cave in.
Our roof looks like it is going to cave in.
Here the unacceptability of the complementizer that is probably related to the fact that these verbs involve a prepositional construction; as we have already noted in chapter 31, a tensed that clause cannot be the object of preposition.〖^2〗
Raising is also sometimes held to operate in the case of certain adjective constructions such as be (un) likely, be certain. We get the same structural alternations as with verbs like seem, and the same patterns of ungrammaticality:
It is unlikely/certain that we will be able to return the merchandise.
*We are unlikely/certain that will be able to return the merchandise.
We are unlikely/certain to return the merchandise.
We derive the last of these sentences exactly as we did seem + infinitive, by generating the subject NP in the embedded clause and then promotion it into subject position in the main clause.
ESL/EFL ISSUES WITH RAISING STRUCTURES
As with other instances in which it plays a mainly formal role in English sentences namely to fulfill the requirement that a surface subject be expressed-ESL/EFL teachers may find their students omitting the it in sentences with seem and similar verb. This is because other languages may exhibit no such requirement, permitting sentences like:
Seems (that) John is sick today.
Looks like we won’t be able to do it.
In fact, in highly colloquial speech even native English speakers may omit it in these sentences. However, in more formal registers this is not an option, especially not in academic writing and teachers may want to stress this fact in classes. Student learners will also produce sentences like these, which mix the possible syntactic frames for seem and be certain:
*He seems like to be not every honest.
(It seems like he is not very honest.)
*I am certain for the assignment to be very easy.
(I am certain that the assignment will be very easy.)
A teacher faced with sentences like the starred ones above should be aware of the structural options available to native speakers and the confusion that ESL/EFL learners may experience in trying to select among them.
OTHER TYPES OF CLAUSAL COMPLEMENTS
Up to now, all of the clausal complements we have presented have been complements to verb. However, these are not the only types of complements: both nouns and adjectives may like complements as well.
COMPLEX-NP COMPLEMENTS
We have seen many cases in Chapter 31 of that-clause function as embedded complement objects of main verbs. That-clauses often function as complements of NPs as well, especiaily in conjunction with certain NPs that represent a cognitive stance or indicate the presumed truth value of the proposition expressed in the complement clause. Such NPs are often called complex NPs. Some example sentences those below, with the head noun in italics:
The belief [that petroleum reserves are infinite] is again common nowadays.
I don’t agree with the notion [that there is no future in electric cars].
Do you believe the claim [that Sam is really a bigamist]?
Her interest in Monet lies in the face [that he was a French painter].
The news [that a hurricane was coming our way] made us worry.
It’s time [to give up and go bed].
This is a good occasion [to open a bottle of champagne].
Each complex NP includes a simple NP plus a complement clause. Note carefully that although the that-clause examples look similar to relative clauses, they are grammatically distinct. For instance, the that at the beginning of the complement clause cannot be identified with any NP in the clause (as can the word that in a clause like Mary saw the coat [that she wanted to buy [ ]], where that is moved forward from object position and is identical to coat). Our phrase structure rule for NP must be adapted again to permit an expansion of this type:
NP NP S
S comp.S’
The tree structure will be the following:
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..
