lignin and carbon black in rubber compounds. The first concern
relates to large particle size of lignin and the second concern relates
to networking of carbon black particles in rubber compounds
and large viscoelastic dissipation. Both these concerns are alleviated
in this study by developing hybrid fillers from lignin and
carbon black.
Hybrid fillers are vastly useful in rubber compounds for suppression
of filler networking whereby the probability of particleeparticle
contacts and formation of particle networks is greatly
reduced [15]. The filler network formation and associated network
breakdown in rubber compounds with strain lead to energy dissipation
and conversion of such dissipated energy into heat. A
consequence of such energy dissipation is an increase of the rolling
resistance of rubber compounds [15]. Thus, efforts to increase the
energy efficiency and to reduce the rolling resistance should
consider suppression of filler particle networking in carbon black
filled rubber compounds.
Ismail et al. [16] reported improved mechanical and fatigue life
performance in compounds of dry mixed, 29:1 by weight, silica and
carbon nanotube hybrid filler compared to silica. Sapkota et al. [17]
observed reduction of Payne effect and storage modulus at lower
strains by partially substituting carbon black with clay in compounds
of natural rubber. These mixed fillers showed reduction of
filler networking, although insufficient dispersion of clay particles
led to reduction of tensile properties. The synergy between carbon
nanotubes and carbon black in their hybrid fillers led not only to
increases in storage modulus values but also in the values of loss
tangent in compounds with polyisoprene [18]. It is apparent that
the synergy among filler particles does not always produce the
desired effects. The most significant work on hybrid fillers was
reported by Wang et al. [19]. These authors developed carbon
black-silica dual phase filler to obtain better mechanical properties
and an optimum balance of tire properties such as rolling resistance,
wet traction, and wear resistance. Despite reporting successful
implementation of hybrid fillers, fundamental
understanding of why particular sets of hybrid fillers work or how
research should be guided in the design of new hybrid filler systems
is still missing.
The interactions of lignin, specifically sodium lignosulfonates
(SLS), with carbon nanotubes were studied by Liu et al. [20]. These
authors obtained stable aqueous dispersions of multi-walled carbon
nanotubes (MWNTs) by grinding the MWNTs with SLS and
attributed such stable dispersion to adsorption of SLS on the
nanotube surfaces due to pep stacking. A similar study dealing
with surface functionalization of MWNTs using kraft lignin and its
use in energy storage applications was also reported by Milczarek
and Nowicki [21]. However, no studies exist on interactions between
lignin and carbon black particles, their unique morphologies,
or their applications in development of rubber compounds. As is
apparent from discussion of prior work, research efforts exist on
the use of combinations of carbon black, carbon nanotubes, and
silica as hybrid fillers. However, very little work exists on development
of bio-derived materials from plant sources and agricultural
wastes as a component in hybrid filler systems for rubber
compounds. Efforts to combine lignocellulosic materials in hybrid
fillers for rubber compounds met with limited success. Attharangsan
et al. [22] reported drops in the values of tensile strength,
100% modulus, and fatigue life in compounds of rubber with hybrid
fillers of rice husk powder and carbon black apparently due to poor
filler particle adhesion with rubber and large particle size of the rice
husk powder (~12 mm).
lignin and carbon black in rubber compounds. The first concern
relates to large particle size of lignin and the second concern relates
to networking of carbon black particles in rubber compounds
and large viscoelastic dissipation. Both these concerns are alleviated
in this study by developing hybrid fillers from lignin and
carbon black.
Hybrid fillers are vastly useful in rubber compounds for suppression
of filler networking whereby the probability of particleeparticle
contacts and formation of particle networks is greatly
reduced [15]. The filler network formation and associated network
breakdown in rubber compounds with strain lead to energy dissipation
and conversion of such dissipated energy into heat. A
consequence of such energy dissipation is an increase of the rolling
resistance of rubber compounds [15]. Thus, efforts to increase the
energy efficiency and to reduce the rolling resistance should
consider suppression of filler particle networking in carbon black
filled rubber compounds.
Ismail et al. [16] reported improved mechanical and fatigue life
performance in compounds of dry mixed, 29:1 by weight, silica and
carbon nanotube hybrid filler compared to silica. Sapkota et al. [17]
observed reduction of Payne effect and storage modulus at lower
strains by partially substituting carbon black with clay in compounds
of natural rubber. These mixed fillers showed reduction of
filler networking, although insufficient dispersion of clay particles
led to reduction of tensile properties. The synergy between carbon
nanotubes and carbon black in their hybrid fillers led not only to
increases in storage modulus values but also in the values of loss
tangent in compounds with polyisoprene [18]. It is apparent that
the synergy among filler particles does not always produce the
desired effects. The most significant work on hybrid fillers was
reported by Wang et al. [19]. These authors developed carbon
black-silica dual phase filler to obtain better mechanical properties
and an optimum balance of tire properties such as rolling resistance,
wet traction, and wear resistance. Despite reporting successful
implementation of hybrid fillers, fundamental
understanding of why particular sets of hybrid fillers work or how
research should be guided in the design of new hybrid filler systems
is still missing.
The interactions of lignin, specifically sodium lignosulfonates
(SLS), with carbon nanotubes were studied by Liu et al. [20]. These
authors obtained stable aqueous dispersions of multi-walled carbon
nanotubes (MWNTs) by grinding the MWNTs with SLS and
attributed such stable dispersion to adsorption of SLS on the
nanotube surfaces due to pep stacking. A similar study dealing
with surface functionalization of MWNTs using kraft lignin and its
use in energy storage applications was also reported by Milczarek
and Nowicki [21]. However, no studies exist on interactions between
lignin and carbon black particles, their unique morphologies,
or their applications in development of rubber compounds. As is
apparent from discussion of prior work, research efforts exist on
the use of combinations of carbon black, carbon nanotubes, and
silica as hybrid fillers. However, very little work exists on development
of bio-derived materials from plant sources and agricultural
wastes as a component in hybrid filler systems for rubber
compounds. Efforts to combine lignocellulosic materials in hybrid
fillers for rubber compounds met with limited success. Attharangsan
et al. [22] reported drops in the values of tensile strength,
100% modulus, and fatigue life in compounds of rubber with hybrid
fillers of rice husk powder and carbon black apparently due to poor
filler particle adhesion with rubber and large particle size of the rice
husk powder (~12 mm).
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