The authors also suggest the need for more phrase-structure level grammar instruction and specifically recommend (a)“providing students with a clear explanation of phrase structure” and (b)“allowing them to ap-ply this knowledge to many examples” (p. 248). Nishitani (2007) also compares the TOEIC test results of two groups of students: one group taking a TOEIC preparation class and the other taking a communicative grammar class. The TOEIC preparation class reviewed test-taking skills and frequently tested items, and they practiced grammar as well as reading comprehension questions.